Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law

social services (e.g., housing, social security income)

and the mandate that they take psychotropic medica-

tion and participate in psychosocial treatment as a

special condition of supervision.

A number of agencies have responded to these chal-

lenges by developing specialty caseloads for PMDs.

These caseloads are reduced in size (M =48), com-

posed exclusively of PMDs, and supervised by an offi-

cer interested in mental health. In prototypic specialty

agencies, officers advocate for services, participate in

the treatment team, and tend to address noncompliance

with problem-solving approaches rather than threats of

incarceration. Specialty caseloads are a promising if

not evidence-based practice. To date, only one relevant

randomized controlled trial (RCT) has been con-

ducted: A large matched trial is currently under way. In

the RCT, PMDs in specialty probation obtained signif-

icantly more mental health services than PMDs in tra-

ditional probation, but these increased services did not

translate into a reduced risk of jail rebookings during a

1-year follow-up. This echoes other studies suggesting

that increased mental health services fail to reduce

police contacts and rearrests. This could be because

(a) the quality of the mental health services received is

poor or (b) mental disorder is not the sole, or even pri-

mary, reason for PMDs’ involvement in the crime. The

latter notion enjoys some support. Based on a sample

of 113 jail detainees with mental disorder, John

Junginger and colleagues found that less than 4% had

been booked for a crime directly related to their men-

tal disorder. Given that PMDs share risk factors for

crime with other offenders, hybrid models for PMDs

probably will not meaningfully reduce recidivism

unless they go beyond providing mental health ser-

vices to target these individuals’ criminogenic needs.

Looking to the Future

Evidence robustly indicates that supervision is most

effective when it blends care with control. Despite

increasing endorsement of rehabilitation efforts, there

is little evidence that the hybrid model of supervision

is being widely implemented. Surveys indicate that the

vast majority of correctional treatment programs do

not apply RNR and other principles of evidence-based

practice. Similarly, less than 5% of probation agencies

have developed specialty mental health caseloads for

PMDs, and a significant number of these have pushed

caseload size beyond the capacity that can conform to

the prototypic hybrid model. Relatively few agencies

have moved from a surveillance to a hybrid model.

The paths toward better achieving this goal include

(a) use of a new generation of risk/needs assessment

tools such as the LS/CMI and CAIS to direct supervi-

sion from intake through case closure, (b) extension of

RNR principles to PMDs, and (c) gradual shifts in

organizational values, hiring practices, and officer

training to produce a larger pool of officers with hybrid

orientations. The most meaningful gains likely will be

made at the officer level. These gains will be gradual

because a generation of officers has grown up with the

law enforcement model, without exposure to rehabili-

tative principles. In the midst of debates about branded

programs, we often lose sight of the fact that officers’

orientation toward supervision and their relationships

with probationers influence outcomes more strongly

than the specific program they ostensibly apply.

Jennifer Skeem, Sarah Manchak,

and Jennifer Eno Louden

See also Conditional Release Programs; Prison

Overcrowding; Probation Decisions; Sentencing

Decisions; Sentencing Diversion Programs

Further Readings

Andrews, D., Bonta, J., & Wormith, S. (2006). The recent

past and near future of risk and/or need assessment.

Crime and Delinquency, 52(1),7–27.

Burrell, W. (2005). Trends in probation and parole in the

states. Washington, DC: Council of State Governments.

Retrieved February 16, 2007, from http://www.appa-

net.org/ccheadlines/docs/Trends_Probation_Parole.pdf

Skeem, J. L., & Manchak, S. (in press). Back to the future:

From Klockars’ model of effective supervision to

evidence-based practice in probation. Journal of Offender

Rehabilitation.

COMPETENCEASSESSMENT

FOR STANDINGTRIAL FOR

DEFENDANTSWITHMENTAL

RETARDATION(CAST*MR)

The Competence Assessment for Standing Trial for

Defendants With Mental Retardation (CAST*MR)

consists of 50 questions and was designed to assess

defendants’ understanding of basic legal concepts,

ability to assist their attorneys, and ability to relate

important information regarding their own legal

Competence Assessment for Standing Trial for Defendants With Mental Retardation——— 103

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