Ullman, S. (2000). Psychometric characteristics of the Social
Reactions Questionnaire: A measure of reactions to sexual
assault victims. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24,
257–271.
Ullman, S., Filipas, H., Townsend, S., & Starzynski, L.
(2005). Trauma exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder
and problem drinking in sexual assault survivors. Journal
of Studies on Alcohol, 66,610–619.CRIMINALBEHAVIOR, THEORIES OF
When crime is truly the product of rational choice, the
offender commits the act for reasons of personal gain
or gratification. His or her behavior is under his or her
complete control. How and to what degree, however,
might other factors intrude on and compromise his or
her ability to exercise free will? The response to this
question has come in the form of innumerable theories,
each purporting to explain criminal behavior in terms
of specific factors. Broadly speaking, these theories
involve three categories of factors: psychological, bio-
logical, and social. In fact, human behavior is the prod-
uct of complex interactions among many factors.
Rather than providing a summary of myriad theories,
this entry focuses on the main factors involved in the
expression and suppression of criminal behaviors.Social Factors
There is a vast criminological literature that identifies
a wide range of environmental factors as causally
linked to criminal behavior. These include develop-
mental, social, and economic factors. For example,
poverty is often cited as a socioeconomic condition
linked to crime. The stress, strain, and frustration
experienced by those lacking the financial resources
to meet their needs and fulfill their desires through
legitimate means renders them more inclined to com-
mit crime than affluent individuals with ready access
to legitimate means. Poor nutrition is an especially
troubling aspect of poverty. Nutritional deficiencies
can result in or exacerbate problems such as learning
disabilities and poor impulse control. Such cognitive
dysfunctions have been identified as precursors
to delinquency and adult criminality. Thus, one’s
position in the social structure of society—as opera-
tionalized by variables such as level of income—can
be a significant contributing factor in the criminalactivities of some individuals by virtue of its impact
on brain function.
Growing up in a household where parental displays
of violence are commonplace can shape the behavior
of children so as to make them more likely to respond
to their own problems with violent means. While
aggression and violence are not synonymous, that
they are correlated is undeniable. Psychologist Albert
Bandura demonstrated the importance of social learn-
ing in the development of aggressive behavior.
Exposure to a violent role model may operate as a
trigger of preexisting psychological and biological
factors that predispose that individual to aggressive
behavior. This may explain why only one of the two
sons whose father assaults their mother grows up to
beat his own wife—there were additional factors that
rendered him more readily influenced by the violent
model; or, conversely, the nonviolent son was resistant
to the influence by virtue of individual “protective”
factors, such as high IQ.
There is a substantial literature on a “cycle of vio-
lence” whereby victims of childhood abuse and
neglect are predisposed to engage in violent behavior
in adulthood, thus passing the violence from one gen-
eration to the next. Other research has examined the
effects of being bullied during formative years, find-
ing that the victims in turn become victimizers. In ani-
mal experiments, exposure to conditions of inescapable
threat has been found to alter specific chemicals in the
brain involved in aggression and the inhibition of
aggression, with the result that formerly docile ani-
mals go on to display inappropriate and excessive
aggression, attacking smaller, weaker animals
whenever presented with them. In essence, they
become the “playground bully.” Thus, a change in
the environment—exposure to inescapable threat—
leads to changes in biology, which lead to the changes
in behavior. Empirical studies on the effects of child
maltreatment reveal that in addition to psychological
problems actual structural and functional damage to
the developing brain may occur. These neurobiologi-
cal effects may be an adaptive mechanism for living in
that dangerous environment. Regardless, they also
tend to predispose the individual to a range of psychi-
atric conditions, aggressive behaviors, and stress-
related illnesses. Resilient children, so called because
of their ability to thrive under high-risk conditions,
appear to have cognitive capabilities (notably higher
verbal intelligence) that enable them to adapt to their
stressful environment. Understanding the mechanismsCriminal Behavior, Theories of——— 153C-Cutler (Encyc)-45463.qxd 11/18/2007 12:41 PM Page 153