Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law

traditional relationship between physical context and

social situations, and this is coupled with perceived

anonymity, access, and affordability. As a conse-

quence, this increases disinhibition and risk taking, in

part because through the new technologies we can

constantly re-create ourselves. The Internet has also

changed the boundaries of what constitutes accept-

able, problematic, or deviant behavior.

Cybercriminals are not a homogeneous group, and

while some criminal activities (such as stalking and

engagement with child pornography) are more likely to

be carried out by males, psychologists have noted that

students, terrorists, amateurs, and members of orga-

nized crime have also been identified as being involved

in cybercrime. The motivations for such criminal activ-

ities include revenge, a desire for notoriety, the techni-

cal challenge, monetary gain, or the promotion of

ideology. As previously noted, the largest proportion of

cybercrime is perpetrated by a company’s own employ-

ees and includes people with highly sophisticated tech-

nical skills and those who are relative novices.

Attempts to generate profiles or taxonomies of

computer criminals have been limited in their scope.

There is little empirical research in this area, but

analyses of cybercrime subjects suggest that the

majority are male, have at least a high school educa-

tion, commit their crimes alone, and are students

within the 18- to 23-year age range.

Responses to Cybercrime

The emergence of cybercrime has resulted in changes

in legislation within and between jurisdictions, mirror-

ing the fact that the new technologies are not limited

by geographical boundaries. Indeed, the location of the

offender in relation to the scene of the crime is an

important characteristic. In traditional crime, such as

burglary, the criminal is physically present at the scene

of the crime. This is very different from cybercrimes,

in which offenders not only are often not present but

also may be located in another country. Cybercrime

has also opened up many gray areas in terms of what

constitutes a crime. For example, many people may

engage in activities that they do not even realize are

criminal, such as pirating software from a friend.

There are many challenges for the future in relation

to cybercrime. Criminal activities on the Internet are

not analogous to similar behavior in the physical

world. The Internet enhances the potential for criminal

and deviant behavior in several ways. The first of these

relates to the dramatic increase in access to the Internet

worldwide, providing limitless opportunities for crim-

inal behavior and a vast marketplace for such activi-

ties. The Internet also provides a sense of anonymity or

disconnectedness for the offender, lowering the risk of

detention and reducing the level of physical risk nor-

mally associated with criminal activity. It also chal-

lenges traditional concepts of time and space.

Ethel Quayle

See also Pornography, Effects of Exposure to; Stalking;

Terrorism; Victimization

Further Readings

Gordon, S., & Ford, R. (2006). On the definition and

classification of cybercrime. Journal in Computer

Virology, 2(1), 13–20.

Jewkes, Y., & Sharp, K. (2002). Crime, deviance and the

disembodied self: Transcending the dangers of

corporeality. In Y. Jewkes (Ed.),Dot.cons: Criminal and

deviant identities on the Internet(pp. 1–14). Cullompton,

UK: Willan.

Speer, D. L. (2000). Redefining borders: The challenges of

cybercrime. Crime, Law & Social Change, 34,259–273.

Taylor, M., & Quayle, E. (2003). Child pornography: An

Internet crime.Brighton, UK: Routledge.

Wall, D. S. (2004). Digital realism and the governance of

spam as cybercrime. European Journal on Criminal

Policy and Research, 10,309–335.

Cybercrime——— 179

C-Cutler (Encyc)-45463.qxd 11/18/2007 12:41 PM Page 179