Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law

on the adjustment of the children. Early findings sug-

gest that economic support is more important than the

amount of contact between the parent and children.

Although the amount of contact does not appear to

predict children’s future well-being, the consistent

payment of child support does.

Further complicating our understanding of the causal

role of divorce on subsequent negative outcomes,

research has suggested that there is a “nonrandom selec-

tion” into divorce, such that many of the problems iden-

tified in children of divorce were present prior to the

separation. Some evidence even has suggested that

genetic effects may play a role, although genetic factors

do not explain all of the variance in these outcomes.

Finally, some authorities have highlighted the impor-

tance of distinguishing between the high levels of emo-

tional distress caused by divorce and the relatively lower

levels of psychological disorder that seem to be attribut-

able specifically to divorce. Although serious psycho-

logical impairment is a relatively infrequent outcome,

painful memories, emotional turmoil, and negative

appraisals of the experience are quite common.

M. Catherine Dodson and John F. Edens

See alsoChild Custody Evaluations; Forensic Assessment

Further Readings

American Psychological Association. (1994). Guidelines for

child custody evaluations in divorce proceedings.

American Psychologist, 49,677–682.

Emery, R. E., Otto, R. K., & O’Donohue, W. T. (2005). A

critical assessment of child custody evaluations: Limited

science and a flawed system. Psychological Science in the

Public Interest, 6,1–29.

Grisso, T. (2003). Evaluating competencies: Forensic

assessments and instruments(2nd ed.). New York: Kluwer

Academic/Plenum.

Otto, R. K., Buffington-Vollum, J. K., & Edens, J. F. (2003).

Child custody evaluation: Research and practice. In

I. B. Weiner (Series Ed.) & A. Goldstein (Vol. Ed.),

Handbook of psychology: Vol. 11. Forensic psychology

(pp. 179–208). New York: Wiley.

DOCTORALPROGRAMS IN

PSYCHOLOGY ANDLAW

Doctoral programs are the most prominent educa-

tional path for training scholars in psychology and

law, providing training for many students interested in

the core areas of these disciplines. There are a variety

of training models aimed at educating students in both

disciplines, but there is lack of agreement about the

best model. However, recommendations have been

made for the core objectives that should be present in

any doctoral program. Regardless of the training

model, there are a variety of employment opportuni-

ties available for graduates of these select programs,

and students applying to them should be aware that

admission can be very competitive.

Psychology and law is one of the fastest growing

areas in all of psychology. This tremendous growth is

obvious in the continued expansion of psychology into

the courts, the establishment of professional organiza-

tions such as the American Psychology-Law Society

(AP-LS), the number of professional journals devoted

specifically to psychology and law or publishing psy-

chology and law–related articles, and the increasing

number of graduate programs designed to train

students. Doctoral programs award the highest degrees

possible in psychology and law, the Ph.D or the Psy.D.

The Ph.D. is typically seen as a research-based degree,

and the Psy.D. is seen as a practice-oriented degree

with less emphasis on students conducting indepen-

dent research and more emphasis on issues such as

assessing and treating mental illness. Although doc-

toral degrees are not necessary to work in psychology

and law, they are frequently preferred for employment

in many areas. This entry focuses on describing some

of the specialty areas available in doctoral programs,

evaluating the different training models and training

areas of these programs, suggesting some of the

employment opportunities, and briefly describing the

admission process for those individuals interested in

obtaining a doctorate in psychology and law.

Doctoral Program Specialty Areas

A marked increase in the number of doctoral pro-

grams in psychology and law over the past 30 years is

a clear indication of the tremendous recent growth in

this specialty area. The University of Nebraska is typ-

ically credited with establishing the first doctoral pro-

gram in psychology and law in the early 1970s.

However, since then, more than 20 doctoral programs

with a significant emphasis on psychology and law

have been established across Canada and the United

States. AP-LS publishes a comprehensive list of

these programs on its Web site. The list of doctoral

programs in psychology and law is as extensive and

Doctoral Programs in Psychology and Law——— 233

D-Cutler (Encyc)-45463.qxd 11/18/2007 12:42 PM Page 233