Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law

declarant (who may never be seen by the juror). In

addition, the juror will need to consider the nature of

the relationship between the declarant and the hearsay

witness as well as the circumstances regarding how

and when the information was shared. Clearly, the task

of evaluating hearsay testimony is daunting for both

jurors and researchers alike.

Peter Miene and Sarah L. Shurbert

See also Children’s Testimony; Child Sexual Abuse;

Inadmissible Evidence, Impact on Juries; Juries and

Eyewitnesses

Further Readings

Hearsay Reform Conference [Special issue]. (1992).

Minnesota Law Review, 76(3).

Ross, D. F., Warren, A. R., & McGough, L. S.

(Eds.). (1999). Hearsay testimony in trials involving

child witnesses [Special issue]. Psychology, Public Policy,

and Law, 5(2).

HOMICIDE, PSYCHOLOGY OF

Computed across a lifespan of 75 years, there is a 1 in

200 chance that an individual in the United States will be

murdered. The frequency of homicide and this startlingly

high statistic warrant more concerted efforts to research

the psychological underpinnings motivating homicide.

The history of the study of the psychology of homicide

is replete with theoretical shifts—some of which have

led to empirical dead ends and others to tremendous

advances. Explaining the motivations of a murderer his-

torically has been a difficult task for psychologists

because of the wide array of individual, situational, and

cultural variables influencing the development of homi-

cidal behavior. Recent psychological research includes

both theoretical and methodological advances that have

allowed for new, unprecedented insights into the psy-

chology of homicide.

Theoretical Perspectives

Several theories have been developed over the brief his-

tory of psychology seeking explanations of the patterns

of homicide. These theories have followed larger move-

ments within psychology. Movements have proceeded

from individualistic explanations of homicide in the late

19th and early 20th centuries to more environmental

explanations throughout much of the past century.

Modern theories seek to address the limitations of pre-

vious theories by accounting for a broader range of

causes of human behavior. Rather than discussing all the

theories, this entry expands on those that are particularly

influential and provides an organizational framework to

anchor and interpret the changes in these theories.

George Vold organized various theories of the mid

20th century intospiritisticand naturalisticexplana-

tions. To focus on scientific explanations of human

behavior, we will not discuss spiritistic accounts of

homicide. Naturalistic explanations include those that

lend themselves to empirical scrutiny and include hered-

itary and defectiveness theories, mental deficiency theo-

ries, and mental illness theories. Hereditary and

defectiveness theories view homicide as the product of

biological and genetic causes. Mental deficiency theo-

ries argue that homicide is the product of low intelli-

gence. Mental illness theories, espoused first by

Sigmund Freud, have been better received than mental

deficiency theories. Although Freud’s psychoanalytic

theory was a starting point for explaining the psychol-

ogy behind homicide, psychoanalytic theory is now rec-

ognized as empirically barren. Freud’s influence was

lasting, however, with many later contributions reveal-

ing Freudian pedigree. Evidence of views of homicide

as the product of psychopathology is revealed by the

first study on homicide, published in 1898 in the psy-

chology journal American Journal of Insanity by

Charles Bancroft. Continuing to the present day is the

perspective of understanding homicide as the result of

pathological psychological manifestations. The theories

mentioned so far focus primarily on characteristics

internal to an individual that may influence homicidal

behavior. There was a focus on more environmental

explanations of homicide in the early to mid 20th cen-

tury, largely in reaction to the previous focus on intra-

individual explanations of homicidal behavior.

Environmental Theories

Environmental theories can be described generally as

focusing on sources or causes of homicidal behavior out-

side the individual. Examples of such theories include

socialization theories, symbolic interactionism, social

structural theories, control theory, and social ecology

theory. Socialization theories of homicide and aggres-

sion have historically been among the most popular and

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