Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law

findings regarding interviews with suspects are the

following:

• Although most make good efforts to encourage the
  suspects to give an account, few seemed good at
  building rapport.


• Use of leading questions and overtalking were rela-
  tively rare.


• Challenging what the suspects said did occur in most
  interviews, but this was often done poorly.


• Most interviewers did purposely provide, near the
  end of the interview, an opportunity for the suspect to
  correct or add to the officer’s summary of what the
  suspect had said.


• Few interviews breached the law. (Of course, the offi-
  cers who conducted these interviews did not know that
  later they would be analyzed in a research project.)


• The tactics of “intimidation,” “situational futility,”
  “minimization,’’ and “maximization” (which would
  be of great concern to both psychologists and the
  courts) never or almost never occurred.

Even in interviews assessed as skilled (in terms of

what the interviewer did and how this seemed to affect

the suspects), however, some of the skills deemed

important by police officers themselves were rarely

present (e.g., empathy/compassion, flexibility, pauses/

silences). Nevertheless, almost all interviewers, even

those who were less skilled, now successfully avoided

releasing to the suspect all the evidence/information at

the beginning.

Suspects’ Views

Until fairly recently, the only information available

from suspects about their interrogation/interviews

were anecdotes. However, 2002 saw the publication of

a pioneering Swedish study (conducted by a former

police officer) of a large sample of (subsequently con-

victed) suspects’ views about the police interviewing

they had experienced. Many indicated via a postal

questionnaire that their interviewers displayed impa-

tience, condemning attitudes, and a lack of empathy—

which the researcher classified as a “dominating”

style. However, other suspects reported experiencing a

more “humane” approach, and it was these whose

confession rate was higher. This crucial finding could

call into question the routine use of a dominating

style. However, interviewee denial could cause a dom-

inating style.

Importantly, subsequent research in Canada and

Australia on suspects’ views can be taken to confirm

the Swedish finding. In Canada, a large number of

men in a maximum security prison, 45% of whom had

confessed to the police, filled in a number of question-

naires. When asked what motivates suspects notto

confess, the inmates indicated that “the negative atti-

tude of the police officer” and “lacking confidence in

the police officer” were among the most important

factors. The researchers also examined which of the

inmates’ questionnaire responses actually related to

whether they had confessed or not and found that

suspects’ perception of the strength of the evidence

against them was significant.

The research in Australia asked convicted sex

offenders what interviewers should do to increase the

likelihood of a genuine confession. Their responses

included being compassionate, neutral, clear, and hon-

est and not making false accusations. When asked

what would make confessions less likely, the most

common response was officer aggression.

In light of research at the psychology-law interface

(e.g., on police interviewing), a number of European

countries have decided that their police officers be

trained in what they call the “British approach.” While

this approach may have a positive effect not only on

minor criminals, who make up the vast bulk of police

suspects, but also on major criminals (e.g., of the

types studied in Sweden, Canada, and Australia),

research on its effectiveness with the most dangerous

perpetrators, such as terrorists, is not available.

However, those who interview/interrogate suspects

will want to be fully aware of what psychology and

the law have to say.

Ray Bull

See alsoBehavior Analysis Interview; Detection of

Deception in Adults; False Confessions; Reid Technique

for Interrogations; Videotaping Confessions

Further Readings

Buckley, J. (2006). The Reid Technique of interviewing and

interrogation. In T. Williamson (Ed.),Investigative

interviewing: Rights, research and regulation

(pp. 207–228). Cullompton, UK: Willan.

Bull, R., & Milne, R. (2004). Attempts to improve the police

interviewing of suspects. In G. D. Lassiter (Ed.),

Interrogations, confessions and entrapment(pp.181–196).

New York: Kluwer.

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