Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law

follow one of two possible patterns of offending. The

majority exhibit adolescence-limitedoffending, which

begins during adolescence and subsides during the

transition to young adulthood. Life-course-persistent

offenders, in contrast, tend to exhibit conduct prob-

lems early (prior to adolescence) and continue to

offend into adulthood.

Risk factors for juvenile offending are numerous

and wide-ranging. Some (such as gender) are unalter-

able. Others (such as neighborhood conditions or

family dynamics), though changeable in theory, are

systemic and difficult to control. Nevertheless, by

understanding the wide range of risk factors for juve-

nile offending, prevention programs and treatments

can be tailored to meet the unique needs of the various

populations of youths they aim to help. The predomi-

nant factors can be grouped into three broad cate-

gories: individual characteristics, social influences,

and community conditions. This entry describes well-

established risk factors in these domains.

Individual Characteristics

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One of the best predictors of future delinquency

is a history of antisocial behavior in childhood.

Adolescents who engage in antisocial behavior (e.g.,

theft, fighting, vandalism, fire setting, etc.) before

puberty (prior to age 13) are more likely to be delin-

quent than those who have not engaged in these acts

prior to puberty. Research also suggests that violent

careers often begin with relatively minor forms of

antisocial behavior that escalate over time. Those with

an early arrest (before age 13) are more likely to

become chronic offenders by age 18. Such chronic

offenders make up a small percentage of the offending

population but are responsible for the majority of seri-

ous violent crimes. In addition, youths whose delin-

quent careers begin early tend to engage in a broad

range of antisocial behavior rather than specialize in a

particular type of offending. Early childhood may thus

be an important developmental period to target for the

prevention of juvenile delinquency.

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Chronic abuse of drugs and alcohol is a precursor

to other dangerous behaviors, including criminal

activity. Although some degree of experimentation with

drugs and alcohol is not unusual during adolescence,

excessive use is a risk factor for delinquency.

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Cognitive deficits have also been implicated as a

risk factor for delinquent behavior. Low intelligence

quotient (IQ) scores, weak verbal abilities, learning

disabilities, and difficulty with concentration or

attention have all been associated with subsequent

delinquent behavior. Social-cognitive development is

especially important because it affects one’s ability to

learn social norms and expectations. For example,

studies have shown that delinquent youths are more

likely than their peers to think that other children’s

behavior is deliberately hostile, even when it is not.

Though not conclusive, studies suggest that such cog-

nitive deficits usually precede the development of

delinquency and not vice versa.

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Youths who are impulsive, hyperactive, and engage

in risk-taking behaviors are more prone to delinquent

acts than those who are not. In fact, self-control (or

the lack thereof) has been suggested by some to be the

root individual-level determinant of crime throughout

the life course. Persons with low self-control lack dili-

gence, find it difficult to delay gratification, have little

tolerance for frustration, lack interest in long-term

pursuits, and have little ability to resolve problems

through verbal rather than physical means. While

youths who react to new stimuli with anxiety or timid-

ity tend to be less likely to commit antisocial acts,

youths who approach new stimuli impulsively or

aggressively tend to be more likely to offend. Interest-

ingly, motor restlessness (fidgeting, or the inability to

sit still) in kindergarten is a stronger predictor of

delinquency between 10 and 13 years of age than low

anxiety or a lack of prosocial behavior. In fact,

children who become persistent offenders are more

likely than their peers to suffer from attention-

deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

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Neuropsychological deficits (often initially mani-

fested as subtle cognitive deficits or a difficult tempera-

ment) have been linked to delinquency and chronic

offending. Anatomical, chemical, and neurological

436 ———Juvenile Offenders, Risk Factors

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