feminist theory, to attempt to account for the power
and control issues, and trauma theory, to deal with the
abuse underlying BWS, is required.
BWS can best be conceptualized as a combination of
posttraumatic stress symptomatology, including reexpe-
riencing a traumatic event (i.e., battering episode);
numbing of responsiveness; and hyperarousal, in addi-
tion to a variable combination of several other factors.
These additional factors include, but are not limited to,
disrupted interpersonal relationships, difficulties with
body image, somatic concerns, as well as sexual and
intimacy problems. Over the past few years, an attempt
has been made to clearly define the hypothesized con-
stituents of BWS for research purposes. As such, some
variables were isolated and include PTSD symptoms,
power and control issues, body image distortion, and
sexual dysfunction, using data collected with the use of
the Battered Woman Syndrome Questionnaire devel-
oped by Lenore Walker.
In the literature from the past 30 years, one of the
most contemplated components of BWS is PTSD.
When the original research was designed, PTSD had
not yet been tested and entered into the DSM diagnos-
tic system. In general, criticisms suggest that the
trauma model does not include sufficient context of the
woman’s life so that it makes it appear that she has a
mental illness rather than her symptoms being a logical
response to being abused. While that is true for some
women, studies indicate that there are numerous
women who come to a therapist because the symptoms
do not go away despite the fact that they are no longer
being battered. PTSD, which is characterized by reex-
periencing of the trauma from stimuli that are both
physically and not physically present, can account for
this phenomenon.The Battered Women
Syndrome Questionnaire
To gain insight into BWS and its effect on women
across cultures, Lenore Walker and colleagues are con-
tinuing the validation process for the Revised Battered
Woman Syndrome Questionnaire 2003 (BWSQ–3).
Given the violence against women as a universal phe-
nomenon, it is essential to interview women from var-
ious cultures. Consequently, data from interviews have
been gathered from Russia, Spain, Greece, Colombia,
and South Florida. Furthermore, the research has
recently begun to take into account incarcerated
women who report a history of battering relationships.The original version of the Battered Women
Syndrome Questionnaire was developed more than
25 years ago by Lenore Walker. The most recent ver-
sion, the Battered Women Syndrome Questionnaire–3,
and its predecessors serve as comprehensive tools to
gather valuable information regarding the field of
domestic violence research and treatment. Establishing
the reliability and validity of BWSQ–3 will enable
future clinicians to use a semistructured clinical inter-
view to assess women who report a battering relation-
ship. The assessment also has the potential to help
guide clinicians treating battered women, as the inter-
view allows for an individualized overview of the
woman’s history and battering relationship. In addition,
researchers have begun to investigate the dynamics of
battering relationships as experienced by women who
become involved in the criminal justice system, for the
purpose of identifying the unique needs of this popula-
tion. Current research by the authors and their col-
leagues using the BWSQ–3 has shown similar patterns
of experience, including a high endorsement of PTSD
symptomatology, across cultures.Application of Battered Woman
Syndrome in Legal Contexts
As was described above, in a legal context, the term
battered woman syndromeis most frequently used as an
explanation of a woman’s perception of threat leading
her to commit a criminal offense in self-defense. Crim-
inal offenses may also include spousal assault (i.e., in
cases in which battered women fight back without
killing their partners) or any other crime they may
co-commit under the influence of their battering part-
ners. In fact, the use of BWS extends beyond the crim-
inal justice system, to include family court (e.g., child
custody cases) or even civil court (e.g., in rare cases
when the woman is suing the batterer for physical and
emotional damages).
BWS is generally applied in the form of evidence
being presented during a criminal trial where the bat-
tered woman killed her abusive partner in self-defense.
The goal of introducing BWS is to obtain either an
acquittal or a downgrading of a first-degree murder
charge to second-degree murder or manslaughter. The
burden carried by the defense includes presenting evi-
dence that the woman was—or perceived herself to
be—in imminent danger. The defense usually attempts
to establish this with the help of an expert witness
who testifies concerning the dynamics of an abusive42 ———Battered Woman SyndromeB-Cutler (Encyc)-45463.qxd 11/18/2007 12:41 PM Page 42