Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law

strangers. Exhibitionism is considered a paraphilia in

the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental

Disorders, text revision (DSM-IV-TR). On occasion,

exhibitionists will masturbate while exposing them-

selves. While exhibitionism is sometimes considered a

humorous topic, it often causes the victims a significant

amount of fear and distress. Exhibitionists will rarely

seek physical contact with their victims. Generally,

they become aroused by the reaction of the victim. In

other cases, the exhibitionist may fantasize that the vic-

tim becomes sexually aroused following the exposure.

Exhibitionists frequently have high rates of recidivism.

It is speculated that exhibitionism generally starts by

the age of 18; however, very few arrests for exhibition-

ism are documented in adults over the age of 40.

Voyeurism

Voyeurism is the act of becoming sexually aroused by

observing unsuspecting individuals who are naked, in

the process of disrobing, or engaging in sexual activity.

Voyeurism is considered a paraphilia in the DSM-IV-

TR.Masturbation usually occurs during or shortly after

voyeuristic activities. There is usually no relationship

between the voyeur and the victim. Individuals who

engage in voyeurism are often referred to as “Peeping

Toms.” In most cases, the voyeur observes the victim

to become sexually aroused and does not desire any

contact with the victim. However, on occasion,

voyeurs suffer from delusional disorders and thus truly

believe themselves to be in a relationship with the vic-

tim. In these cases, the voyeur could pose a danger to

the victim.

Voyeurism generally begins before the age of 15

years and tends to be a chronic behavior. Many voyeurs

have consensual age-appropriate relationships in addi-

tion to the voyeuristic behavior. However, in its extreme

form, voyeurism constitutes the only form of sexual

activity.

Frotteurism

Frotteurism involves touching and rubbing against a

nonconsenting person to achieve sexual gratification.

Frotteurism is considered a paraphilia in the DSM-IV-

TR.The behavior usually takes place in crowded areas

in which the frotteur can more easily escape arrest or

detection (e.g., on busy sidewalks and on crowded

trains or buses). Frotteurs are generally male, and their

victims are usually female. During the assault, the frot-

teur generally rubs his genitals against the victim’s

thighs and buttocks or fondles the victim’s genitalia or

buttocks with his hands. Some frotteurs will grab a

woman’s breast as they are walking by. While engaging

in frotteurism, the frotteur usually fantasizes that he is

in a consensual sexual relationship with the victim.

However, the frotteur recognizes that he must escape

following the assault to avoid prosecution from the

authorities. Some acts of frotteurism are very overt

(such as grabbing a breast), while others are less so

(rubbing against someone in a crowded shopping mall).

Therefore, victims may not always be aware that they

have been assaulted. Usually, this paraphilia begins by

adolescence. Most frotteurs are between the ages of

15 and 25; however, frotteurism has also been noted in

older, shy individuals.

Elizabeth L. Jeglic

See alsoSex Offender Assessment; Sex Offender Recidivism;

Sex Offender Treatment

Further Readings

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and

statistical manual of mental disorders(4th ed., text

revision). Washington, DC: Author.

Groth, A. N. (1999). Men who rape: The psychology of the

offender.New York: Plenum Press.

Knight, R. A., & Prentky, R. A. (1990). Classifying sex

offenders: The development and corroboration of

taxonomic models. In W. L. Marshall & H. E. Barbaree

(Eds.),Handbook of sexual assault: Issues, theories, and

treatment of the offenders(pp. 23–52). New York: Plenum.

SEXUALHARASSMENT

Law and psychology scholars have studied judgments of

sexual harassment for several decades and have reported

a number of findings that add to and draw from the lit-

eratures in social, clinical, and industrial organizational

psychology. This entry discusses some of the more

important variables such as sex of the observer, com-

plainant, and alleged harasser; organizational structure;

and individual differences in observers, complainants,

and alleged harassers. While not all psychological

studies of sexual harassment follow the contours of

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