194 CHAPTER 7|ELECTIONS
open primaries or closed primaries, and state law sets the timing of these
elections. A few states hold single primaries, in which there is one election
involving candidates from both parties, with the top two finalists (regardless of
party) receiving nominations to the general election.
The second step in the election process, the general election, is held through-
out the nation on the fi rst Tuesday after the fi rst Monday in November, which
federal law designates as Election Day. General elections determine who wins
elected positions in government. The offi ces at stake vary depending on the year.
Presidential elections occur every four years (2008, 2012,... ). In a presidential
election year Americans elect the entire House of Representatives, one-third of
the Senate, and a president and vice president. During midterm elections (2006,
2010,... ) there is no presidential contest, but the entire House and another one-
third of the Senate are up for election.
The Constitution limits voting rights to American citizens who are at least
18 years old. There are also restrictions on voter eligibility; these vary across
states, including residency requirements (usually 30 days) and whether people
convicted of a major crime can vote. A new development in American elections
is an increase in the practice of early voting, or casting a general election vote
prior to Election Day.^3 This has always been an option for voters who cannot get to
the polls on Election Day because of travel, illness, religious obligations, or simi-
lar reasons. These voters may cast an absentee ballot, typically by mailing it to a
designated location. Recently, many states have established no-excuse-required
absentee ballots or simply have allowed voters to vote early by mail or at polling
stations.Constituencies: Who Chooses Representatives?
In American elections, offi ceholders are elected in single-member districts in
which only the winner of the most votes takes offi ce. (Although each state’s sena-
tors both represent the whole state, they are elected separately; they are not the
fi rst- and second-place election winners.) Senate candidates compete at the state
level; House candidates compete in congressional districts. In most states the
congressional district lines are drawn by state legislatures. In a few states non-
partisan commissions or committees of judges perform this function. (For details
on redistricting, see Chapter 9.)
Because members of the House and Senate are elected from specifi c geo-
graphic areas, they often represent very diff erent kinds of people. These con-
stituents diff er in terms of age, race, income level, occupation, and political
leaning, including party affi liation and ideology. Therefore, legislators from dif-
ferent areas of the country face highly diverse demands from their constituents—
leading them to pursue very dissimilar kinds of policies. For example, Demo-
c r a t i c s e n a t o r J o h n K e r r y, e l e c t e d f r o m M a s s a c h u s e t t s , r e p r e s e n t s a f a i r l y l i b e r a l
state where gay marriage is legal, while Republican senator Orrin Hatch is from
the conservative state of Utah. Suppose the Senate votes on a measure to ban
gay marriage nationwide. Kerry knows that most of his constituents would
probably want him to vote against the proposal, and Hatch knows that most
of his constituents would probably want him to vote for it. Thus, in general,
congressional conf licts over policy often ref lect differences in constituents’
demands.general election The election in
which voters cast ballots for House
members, senators, and (every
four years) a president and vice
president.
open primary A primary election
in which any registered voter can
participate in the contest, regard-
less of party affi liation.
closed primary A primary
election in which only registered
members of a particular political
party can vote.