ELECTORAL CAMPAIGNS| 205In writing their platform, candidates may be con-
strained by positions they have taken in the past or by
their party affi liation. Chapter 6 showed that the parties
have strong brand identities that lead many citizens to
associate Democrats with liberal policies and Republi-
cans with conservative ones; as a result, candidates often
fi nd it diffi cult to make campaign promises that contra-
dict these perceptions. Also infl uencing a candidate’s
positions are demands from potential supporters. For
example, in a state or district with many conservative or
Republican voters, opposition to health care reform leg-
islation or to amnesty for illegal immigrants might be a
winning electoral strategy—just as support for these pro-
posals would generally be helpful for candidates running
in states or districts where most voters are moderate to
liberal or Democrats.
The two-step electoral process in American elections also infl uences candidate
positions. To win offi ce, candidates have to campaign twice, fi rst in a primary and
then in a general election. Voters in primary elections generally hold more extreme
views than the average voters in a general election. As a result, in the typical con-
gressional district Republican candidates win primaries by taking conservative
positions, while Democratic candidates win primaries by upholding liberal views.
However, a position or promise that attracts votes in a primary election might not
work so well in the general election, or vice versa. For example, during debates
before the 2012 Iowa caucuses, some Republican presidential candidates cited
their religious beliefs as an infl uence on their personal lives and political stands—
a useful strategy given the large number of religious conservatives expected to
attend the Iowa caucuses, but a less useful strategy in the general election given
the lower proportion of such voters across the entire nation.
CONFRONTING OTHER CANDIDATES
Candidates often contrast their own records or positions with those of opposing
candidates or make claims designed to lower voters’ opinions of their opponents.
Sometimes these interactions occur during a formal debate. Most congressio-
nal campaigns involve debates in front of an audience of likely voters, a group of
reporters, or the editorial board of a local newspaper. Typically candidates take
questions from reporters, although sometimes candidates question each other or
answer questions from the audience.
Presidential campaigns involve multiple debates during the primary and cau-
cus season. Throughout the months before the fi rst primaries and caucuses, each
party’s candidates gather for many single-party debates using a variety of for-
mats. During the general election the Republican and Democratic nominees meet
for several debates. (The number and format are negotiated between the cam-
paigns and the Commission on Presidential Debates, the organization that hosts
the debates.)^23 The 2012 presidential campaign featured three debates between
the presidential nominees and one between the vice presidential nominees. The
debates off er valuable free exposure: given a relatively uninterested electorate,
candidates must present themselves in a way that captures voters’ attention and
gains their support.
Candidates attempt to win support by emphasizing their understanding of
citizens’ concerns and their willingness to address those concerns. They also try
DURING CAMPAIGNS, CANDIDATES
often seek to strengthen the
perception that they share (or at
least are sympathetic to) average
Americans’ beliefs and interests.
Here, Democratic candidate
Hillary Clinton enjoys a beverage
with patrons in an Indiana bar
during the 2008 presidential
primaries.