474 CHAPTER 15|FOREIGN POLICY
oil increased again when the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC) raised prices in 1979. Both events contributed to a recession in America
and the electoral defeats of two incumbent presidents, Gerald Ford in 1976 and
Jimmy Carter in 1980.AFTER THE COLD WAR: HUMAN RIGHTS, TRADE, TERRORISM, AND OTHER
CONCERNS
In 1991 the Soviet Union splintered into 15 countries, eff ectively ending the Cold
War. The end of this confl ict, along with the growing number of democracies world-
wide and the development of democratic peace theories (which argue that democ-
racies will not fi ght other democracies), suggested to some observers that military
confl icts would become much rarer, so that other concerns would more strongly
infl uence America’s foreign policy.^25 Events early in the post–Cold War era seemed
to support this thesis. For example, human rights became a more important for-
eign policy topic,^26 and the United States became involved in humanitarian relief
and nation-building eff orts in Somalia, Bosnia, and Kosovo. Moreover, a series of
agreements, including the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in
1994 and the formation of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995, lowered
tariff s throughout the world.
However, new security threats emerged in the form of terrorist groups, most
notably Al Qaeda, led by Osama bin Laden. Al Qaeda organized several attacks
on Americans, including the bombing of U.S. embassies in Tanzania and Kenya
in 1998 and an attack on an American warship in 2000. Then came the attacks
of September 11, 2001. Some analysts and politicians, including President
George W. Bush, described these attacks as part of a worldwide “clash of civiliza-
tions” or a global war on terrorism, pitting the secular, open West against radical
Islam.^27 After the attacks President George W. Bush announced a new U.S. policy,
the Bush Doctrine, or the doctrine of preemption, whereby the United States
would not wait until after an attack to respond but, rather, would use military
force to eliminate potential threats before they could be put in motion. This policy
was behind the decision to invade Iraq in 2003 and the ongoing operations against
Al Qaeda, including the attack in August 2011 that resulted in bin Laden’s death.
In several important respects Barack Obama’s presidency represents a sharp
reversal of many Bush-era policies. The emphasis now is on improving foreign
perceptions of America and Americans, and avoiding unilateral action in favor of
multilateral coalitions. Obama’s 2009 speech in Cairo, in which he acknowledged
past American mistakes and called for cooperation around shared interests,
is t y pica l of this new approach. However, a s we describe throughout this chap-
ter, many of Obama’s policies in regard to the war on terrorism and other areas
are quite similar to those established by the Bush administration.
Finally, the Arab Spring of 2012, during which citizen protests toppled gov-
ernments in Middle Eastern countries from Tunisia to Yemen, creates new
challenges for American foreign policy. While the establishment of democrati-
cally elected governments in these countries would seem to be consistent with
American interests, the concern is that citizens there might demand policies
that are contrary to stated American goals, including support for Israel. In fall
2012 these countries held their fi rst free elections, and it is not clear what poli-
cies will ultimately emerge. Clearly, though, the changes initiated by the Arab
Spring raise new concerns for American policy makers.THE AL QAEDA TERRORIST
organization headed by Osama
bin Laden was the driving force
behind many terrorist attacks on
Americans, including the October
2000 bombing of the USS Cole
and the 2001 attacks on the World
Trade Center and the Pentagon.
Bush Doctrine The foreign policy
of President George W. Bush, under
which the United States would use
military force preemptively against
threats to its national security.