ARCHAEOLOGICALRECORDING 63
and presentation of these records much more efficient. Use
of a database allows for comparison between evidence both
from different parts of the site and between different sites,
the formation of bibliographic files and the cataloguing
of objects for further study. A database program further
enhances the more mundane aspects of site management:
site records, work rosters, artefacts, samples, surveys, site
reports, budget/finance and payroll. Many good systems are
currently available and custom-made designs are ubiquitous.
The important consideration is that they fulfil the require-
ments for record-keeping, thereby speeding up the interpre-
tation process and making the data more widely accessible.
There are, however, a number of important points to
consider in relation to the use of computers in archaeology.
Computing Options and Issues
The field of computers is very dynamic and rapidly
changing. The hardware and software considered power-
ful today is often outdated or obsolete in a very short time.
Those responsible for setting up a computerized record-
ing system must be familiar with the latest technology and
software or consult those who are. The best approach is
to think about systems that can also be ‘future-proofed’
(i.e. carried over into the future due to the versatility of
the software or the simplicity and flexibility of its output).
Not all of the most popular software will still remain pre-
valent in 20 years’ time. The Archaeological Data Service
(ADS – see below) will be able to offer advice in this area.
Research on the internet is also advisable because there
are various options available for even the smallest bud-
get, both for the current project and to provide for data
to migrate into future computer software.
These days many archaeological projects have pre-
designed recording systems from the outset. Putting all
the information in one place can be very convenient.
Regardless of the system adopted, however, the informa-
tion becomes vulnerable to total loss if a problem occurs
with the machine being used. A carefully programmed
system for backing-up must be established, making copies
of the information on a separate storage device in order
to minimize any loss of records resulting from a problem
with the main device. The copies should then be stored
in a safe place well away from the original so that a single
disaster will not destroy both. Two separate hard drives,
with one acting as a back-up, is far more convenient than
copying onto smaller-capacity disks or memory sticks.
Technical issues, compatibility issues, and preventative
measures must all be considered as well. If an archae-
ological site is away from standard power supplies, invest-
ment in an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) can be
critical. In addition to a UPS, guarding against electronic
disasters involves surge-protectors, copies of all relevant
software necessary to run the project as well as the com-
puter and, of course, carrying out daily back-ups.Geographical Information Systems
Geographical information system (GIS) software allows
display and analysis of archaeological and other data in a
graphical form and in four dimensions. Once the data is
in the system, a GIS package allows interrogation of datasets
in a wide variety of ways. Layers of information can be
placed one on another so that spatial, chronological, and
other trends can be observed in an area, through time,
on one site, between sites or even in one small part of a
site. Statistical analyses, viewshed (a map of the line of sight
from any given location) analysis, as well as historical com-
parisons are possible using a GIS-based archive with a
database. Currently, there are many examples of GIS soft-
ware, but the most common are ArcView, and MapInfo.EXPLAINING, DOCUMENTING, AND
SUPERVISING THE SYSTEM
There are a few guidelines to consider when deciding on
a recording system:- The more sophisticated the recording system, the
more explanation it will require for people to be able
to use it and the more room there is for error. - It is very important when designing a system for
recording a site that future researchers will be able
to understand how it works. It must therefore be
effectively documented, including the database,
which ideally should have a schematic layout of
how the database is designed (i.e. what the relation-
ships are, what the identification names are, etc.). - Ambiguous terms should be avoided. With any sys-
tem it is advisable to use (or if necessary create) a
specific glossary or reference book that will provide
a list of terminology to be used. This will ensure con-
sistency and common understanding among project
workers. Online glossaries and thesauruses are now
available (see Further Information below). - It is important that information is recorded fully
and reliably for each part of the site. Mistakes and
ambiguities do occur but data-entry can provide a
check system and is therefore a good idea. On a small
project, this is likely to be the job of the project leader
but on larger projects it is more effective if a single
person is appointed. This role is usually combined
with administering the records and the allocation
of unique identification numbers, such as artefact
numbers, sample numbers, etc.