BASICPRINCIPLES – MAKING THEMOST OF THECLUES 19
complexity of the subject, not the thoroughness of the
investigation and recording that should be applied. Some
classes of site, such as submerged landscapes, may re-
quire higher levels of specialist knowledge for successful
recognition and analysis but all will benefit from a careful
and systematic approach.
If wrecks are taken as an example of one type of
archaeological site under water, it quickly becomes clear
that even within this one category there is at least as much
variety as there are boat and ship types. In discussing such
material and comparing one example with another, it is
therefore helpful to have some method of clarifying the
situation through a system of classification. Such sites can
be sub-divided according to age, constructional details or
state of preservation, as well as simply in terms of what
is known about them (e.g. exact location and full survey,
or estimated date and area of loss). A number of online
glossaries and thesauruses exist to provide structured
word-lists to enable a standardized use of terminology (see
‘Further information’ at the end of the chapter).
The factors affecting the formation and preservation
of sites are varied, complex and differ from site to site. As
more work is done in this area it becomes even harder to
generalize. Sites that appear to be in a similar condition
on the sea-bed, and therefore fit easily into the same cat-
egory in terms of state of preservation, may have arrived
at that condition through very different processes. No site
can be fitted neatly into a precisely defined category. To
try to do this is to over-simplify the nature of archae-
ological material. But, as long as they are used sensibly,
classification systems have much to offer in terms of
formalizing vague ideas and theories within a framework
(Gibbins, 1990).
It has also been shown that careful search and system-
atic survey can produce results that allow an interpreta-
tion of sites that apparently lack any pattern and are
heavily contaminated by modern material (Parker, 1981).
This means that although sites may be classified in terms
of degree of survival, it does not necessarily imply that
scattered sites deserve less attention or can be treated less
sensitively. Information may be more difficult to extract
from such sites but their potential has been amply
demonstrated (Muckelroy, 1978; Tomalin et al., 2000).
It might be suggested that the more scattered a site,
the more careful the collection of the clues needs to be,
because understanding the processes that scattered the site
(and continue to modify it) becomes vital to its eventual
interpretation.THE RANGE OF EVIDENCE ON AN
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE
As stated above, an archaeological site is a concentration
of clues left by the hustle and bustle of life in the past.
These clues exist in, and have been modified by, their
surroundings and environment. The following section
is a brief review of what makes up a site and the sort of
information that can be extracted from the various clues.
The evidence, in simple terms, comes in three groups:
structure, sediments and contents. Sites come in many dif-
ferent forms but these basic components are the same.Structures: What is the single most striking feature of
a castle, a workshop or a merchant’s ship? Very probably
it is the structure – whether made from stone, brick or
wood. Careful study of a structure can provide clues
about levels of technology and methods of construction.
What types of raw materials were used and where did they
come from? What does this imply about the supply
routes and transport systems available to carry these
materials? The reasons for a particular construction
method can be determined by studying the design: was it
for defence or prestige and what does this suggest about
the political situation at the time of its construction – a
time of war or a period of peace and prosperity?
When examining a ship, the structural elements have
much to reveal about the functional characteristics and
performance of the vessel, vital to an understanding of
its significance within the culture that produced it (e.g.
speed, carrying capacity, manoeuvrability, and whether it
could it be beached easily or even carried overland).
Looking for faults or repairs in structures can also reveal
much about the age, status and life-history of a building
or vessel. In the case of a ship, perhaps even the reason
for sinking can be determined. Just as buildings collapse
through poor design today, not every design was successfulFigure 4.4 Site types: aerial photograph of a stone-built
fish-trap at Airds Bay, Scotland. (Photo: Colin Martin)