BASICPRINCIPLES – MAKING THEMOST OF THECLUES 21
It is important to be aware that there may be evidence
that is not always immediately visible. For example,
insect fragments found on archaeological sites are usually
in the size range of between 0.5 and 1.0 mm (0.02– 0.04
in) and so are unlikely to be recognized during the
excavation itself. Test samples of likely deposits should
be taken and assessed without delay. It is important that
the possible presence of environmental and scientific
evidence is not overlooked, and that samples are taken
of potentially valuable deposits (e.g. container and bilge
contents).
Non-artefactual remains have received less attention in
general and archaeological literature and readers may not
be familiar with the range of material involved. For that
reason the main groups are outlined below.
Animal remains: Animal remains appear on sites in
a wide variety of forms. Ecofacts like bones are com-
mon and can provide much information on diet and,
if examined for marks, on butchery practice and even
organized supply systems. Animal hair is also a common
component of weather- and waterproofing materials
found on shipwreck sites (e.g. caulking). Fish bones found
on an underwater site may be the remains of species
that inhabited the site and as such they could be useful
indicators of the characteristics of past environments. It
is much more likely, however, that they are the remains
of stored food, refuse or relate to fishing activities, par-
ticularly if they are found in any quantity on a shipwreck
site. Both animal and fish bones can yield a great deal
of information about diet and provisioning.
Human remains: If human remains are found on
site, it is a legal requirement in many countries that the
relevant government department is informed. The study
of human bones by specialist palaeo-pathologists can
yield information such as physique, sex, height and diet
together with the identification of occupational diseases
and injuries. Human bones may occur as burial groups
on a flooded land site or as the remains of the crew on a
shipwreck site. On well-preserved sites, material other than
bone may survive (e.g. hair, tissue remains). Biological
material that may be associated with human remains
include stomach contents and coprolites (containing
seeds, cereal fragments and parasite eggs).
Invertebrate remains: The study of insects, molluscs and
parasites falls within the realm of ‘invertebrate zooarchae-
ology’. The analysis of molluscs can provide informa-
tion such as past climates and environments, diet and
use as artefacts or tools. Molluscs have specific habitat
requirements that reflect the contemporary environment
and can be from land, rivers or the sea. Molluscs of
economic importance are usually found as food waste
(e.g. oyster, whelk and mussel) although some may be
collected for use in building materials or pottery, or
to extract dyes. ‘Single event’ dumps can be analysed to
determine the season of collection and information on
the population being exploited (or even farmed).
The analysis of internal (endo-) and external (ecto-)
parasites found within archaeological deposits can yield
information on:- the range and antiquity of various pests and diseases
in both animals and human; - the conditions under which people were living;
- the effect of these conditions and the parasites on
peoples’ health; - determining the function of certain features (e.g.
cesspits, bilges); - examining methods of sewage disposal.
Internal parasites normally survive in anaerobic
(without oxygen) deposits (e.g. cesspits) or are preserved
in fossilized faeces (coprolites) in the form of ova (eggs).
They consist of species that infect both humans and animals
(e.g. tapeworm, whipworm). Examples of external parasites
(e.g. fleas) have been recovered from wreck-sites. Other
insect species can provide information on changes in local
and regional climate, palaeo-environments, the infestation
of food stores and an indication of the contemporary
conditions (e.g. wet or dry).Botanical material: Plant remains can be found on
archaeological sites in a wide variety of contexts.
Locational information and individual measurements
together with the species identification can provide evid-
ence of agricultural practices, pests/blights, provisioning,
stowage and diet, nature and origin of cargo. A wide range
of different plant components can be preserved includ-
ing wood and bark, seeds (including fruit stones and
grain), fungi and mosses. Ship’s timbers can potentially
reveal a great deal about past environments, timber
resources and woodworking practices. Pollen analysis
(palynology) is the study of pollen grains and spores, which
have particularly resilient walls. Palynology can provide
information about past environments and ecology, the
dating of deposits, assessing the impact of humans on the
environment and in certain cases the identification of
residues within containers.
Phytoliths are microscopic particles of silica that occur
within the cells of certain species of plants (especially the
grasses) and as such they are useful aids to identification.
They are particularly useful to the archaeologist because
they survive when all other traces of the plant have dis-
appeared and are also instrumental in imposing wear
patterns on the cutting edges of tools such as scythes.