two sovereign states, and the accompanying forced migrations across a newly
established border that had never previously existed, resulted in the death of per-
haps as many as 3 million people. The remnant centrifugal forces from the parti-
tion continue to be expressed in the antagonistic relationship between India and
Pakistan. Almost a decade and a half later Nigeria experienced severe centrifugal
forces in the wake of decolonization. Granted independence in 1960, the Nigerian
government faced the daunting task of creating a unitary national identity in a state
that held perhaps as many as 250 distinct ethnic groups. By 1967, centrifugal
forces in the southeastern portion of the country led to the attempted secession
of Biafra, a region dominated by the Igbo people. In this instance, centrifugal force
did not result in a division of the country, but the civil war that erupted as a conse-
quence of the Biafran secession led to widespread devastation and possibly 3 mil-
lion dead, mostly non-combatants.
Centripetal forcesmay counter the effect of centrifugal forces. These are the
glue that holds a nation-state together, and confers a shared sense of identity,
expressed as national identity. Centripetal forces are represented by a strong sense
of shared historical and cultural origins, a common language or religion, or an eco-
nomic motivation toward unity. In the United States, as least two of these factors
historically helped generate centripetal force. The notion ofmanifest destiny,a
common purpose to settle and “civilize” the North American continent, played a
strong role in creating an American national identity in the 19th century, and the
use of English as a national tongue, although not a legally defined national lan-
guage, also contributed greatly to centripetal force in the country. Japan represents
a nation-state that has a long pattern of strong centripetal linkages, including a
common language, a national identity closely connected (at least until recent
times) to the indigenous faith of Shinto, and an enduring and well-indoctrinated
national myth. Moreover, the country has been successfully invaded and occupied
by a foreign power only once in history, and has not experienced any significant
waves of immigration of minority groups. As a result, Japan has faced few epi-
sodes of centrifugal force that threatened its spatial integrity.
Centripetal forces are evident in efforts atsupranationalism. In such cases, the
centrifugal forces that must be countered are the respective national identities of
the member states. The major centripetal force behind the formation of the Euro-
pean Union, often cited as a prime example of supranationalism, is economic
motivation—the goal of constructing a larger economic entity that will benefit
all the member states. The projected benefits of belonging to a larger economic
organization have obviously provided grounds for many European nation-states
to abandon a portion of their sovereignty (a centrifugal force in such an organiza-
tion) as the number of member states now exceeds 25, and appears set to grow
larger. Interestingly, centrifugalandcentripetal forces appear to be vital influences
Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces 57