The influence of Empiricism can be seen also in the structure of De Medicina, for this
work deals only with therapeutics, and not with anatomy or etiology. In the individual
books, however, Celsus mainly uses Dogmatic authors (the most frequently mentioned
authors are H, Askle ̄piade ̄s of Bithunia and Erasistratos; among Empiricists,
the only one he mentions quite often is He ̄rakleide ̄s of Taras), and sometimes he even opens
up to Dogmatic theories (e.g. to the Hippokratic theory of humors in Book 2). As for
these issues, Celsus’s “probabilism” cannot be associated with known positions from the
Empiricist tradition.
Sources. Celsus uses different sources (the hypothesis that there was a single Greek
source for De Medicina is now totally discarded): probably an Empiricist doxography
in the proem; Hippokrate ̄s in Books 2 (Progn., Prorrh., Aphor. and other works) and 8
(surgical treatises); Alexandrian anatomy in Book 7; Askle ̄piade ̄s in Books 2–4. It seems
certain, even if not precisely verifiable, that he was influenced by several Hellenistic sources.
He possibly uses also some Latin sources (at least the medical section of V’s
encyclopedia).
Dietetics. Following hygiene (Book 1) and semiotics (2.1–8), the remaining part of Book
2 deals with dietetic cures in general, namely therapies that can be used for different dis-
eases: bleeding (that he deems useful for almost every disease, even if he urges always taking
into consideration the general state of the patient), cups, purgatives, vomit, massages, rock-
ing (gestatio), abstinence and fasting, and sweating. This section comprises also a treatment of
the characteristics of foods and drinks, in connection with the characteristic of patients and
to the effects they have on human body.
Book 3 deals with the therapies of the diseases affecting the whole body: fevers (3–17),
madness, “cardiac” affection, lethargy, dropsy, wasting disease, epilepsy, jaundice, “ele-
phantiasis,” and apoplexy (18–27). Celsus focuses on symptoms and therapies; there are
only scattered references to causes of diseases (e.g. 3.18.17, where he says that melancholy
“is apparently caused by black bile”). Book 4 deals with the diseases affecting body parts in
the a capite ad calcem order (“from head to foot”). The treatment is preceded by a concise
description of human anatomy connected to the following exposition, that comprises dis-
eases affecting both external parts of the body (eyes, oral cavity, genitals, etc.) and internal
organs (stomach, lungs, liver, etc.).
Pharmacology. In his brief proem to pharmacology Celsus mediates between the
pharmacological tradition (mentioning Erasistratos, H and his school, the
Empiricists) and the rejection of the use of drugs proposed by Askle ̄piade ̄s of Bithunia, by
urging integration of drugs with dietetic therapy. Book 5 deals with drugs and remedies
in general. The single, mostly vegetable, remedies are classified according to their thera-
peutic effects (anesthetics, laxatives, etc.); recipes are subdivided into emollients, plasters,
pastilles, and pessaries. Specific sections are dedicated to pharmaceutical (but also sur-
gical) treatment of wounds, poisonings and skin diseases. Book 6 deals with remedies for the
diseases affecting body parts, according to the a capite ad calcem order (special attention is
given to ophthalmic diseases: Celsus knows about 30 of them, and quotes many collyria
recipes). In this section Celsus mentions several inventors of specific remedies and recipes,
mostly otherwise unknown.
Surgery. The third section opens with a brief history of surgery, from pre-Hippocratic
age to Alexandrian medicine and to the surgeons working at Rome. The proem also comprises
a portrait of the ideal surgeon, with observations about surgical deontology. The first part
of Book 7 (1–5) is devoted to surgical operations affecting the entire body: dislocations
A. CORNELIUS CELSUS