underlying principles of matter (e.g., atoms and the void) or the heavens, realms that we
cannot examine directly, he argued that we must make use of analogies with the physical
world, and take as true “uncontested” views and as false those that are “contested.” Fo r
example, Epicurus argues that the only view that can explain the workings of the physical
world around us is atomism, because it alone accounts for and does not conflict with the
facts of the world as we see them. Similarly, when discussing the movements of the heavens,
Epicurus posits explanations that are not contradicted by the evidence. At the microscopic
level, though, only one theory, atomism, fits all the facts, whereas in astronomy and
meteorology there are often several hypotheses that are not contradicted by the phenomena.
For example, Epicurus posited a number of possibilities for why the Moon waxes and
wanes, all of which he says may be true. Only one of the possibilities will in fact be true for
our Moon, but that does not stop the other explanations from being true of other similar
phenomena somewhere else in the universe.
- Ethics. In ethics, Epicurus taught that the highest good is pleasure, defined as freedom
from pain in the body (aponia), and freedom from anxiety and disturbance in the mind (atar-
axia). Epicurus identified two types of pleasure, static and kinetic. Static pleasure is the state
an organism feels when it suffers no pain and is functioning well. Kinetic pleasure is what an
organism feels when it is physically or mentally stimulated. Kinetic pleasure apparently
occurred in two ways: either in the process of satisfying a want and returning an organism to
its static state of pleasure, or when an organism’s experience of static pleasure is “varied” by
the addition of kinetic pleasure. Epicurus taught that static pleasure is the highest possible for
a human being. Kinetic pleasure does not increase pleasure, but only varies it.
Epicurus taught that human beings often fail to achieve happiness because they do not
distinguish among three types of desires: (1) natural and necessary desires, i.e., desire for
things that are necessary for life; (2) natural and non-necessary desires, i.e., desires for things
that are not necessary for life but help to “vary” our pleasure; and (3) desires that are neither
natural nor necessary, i.e., desires for things like honor and political office. Epicurus advo-
cated leading a simple life, taking pleasure in easily satisfying our natural and necessary
desires. He also taught that not all pleasures should be chosen, nor all pain avoided.
Humans often must give up pleasure now to avoid greater pain later, and chose some pain
now to attain greater pleasure later. If an action promotes long-term freedom from pain and
anxiety, it should be chosen, otherwise not. Epicurus also taught techniques for maintaining
mental ataraxia even when the body was feeling great pain. He maintained that physical pain
could be endured, his reasoning captured later in a memorable Latin phrase: si grauis, breuis;
si longus, leuis (“Pain is short if it is strong, light if it is long”). Pleasure was also the basis for
evaluating virtue and ethical behavior. According to Epicurus, it is important to be virtuous
not because the virtues are valuable in themselves, but because the virtues are the means to
the most pleasant life. He maintained that human beings, although they had minds and
souls made up of atoms and void, had freedom of action because of the swerve of atoms.
How he thought the swerve preserved the freedom of living creatures, and what kind of
freedom he thought it preserved, have been the subject of intense scholarly debate.
DSB 4.381–382, D.J. Furley; G. Arrighetti, Epicuro, Opere (1973); E. Asmis, Epicurus’ Scientific Method
(1984); Walter G. Englert, Epicurus on the Swerve and Voluntary Action (1987); Long and Sedley (1987)
§ 4 – 25; OCD3 532 – 534, D.J. Furley; ECP 214 – 219, E. Asmis; REP 3.350–351, D.N. Sedley; BNP 4
(2004) 1075–1084, M. Erler.
Walter G. Englert
EPICURUS OF SAMOS