1082
be done using the standard graphical methods; Porro
therefore invented the photogoniometer, a telescope
placed at the optical center which measured the angles
at the camera position between objects in the scene.
The telescope used the same type of lens as the camera,
thereby canceling out the effects of lens distortion in
the measurement. Later rediscovered by Koppe, this
Porro-Koppe design principle has been widely used in
photogrammetric equipment.
The latter part of the 19th century saw widespread
adoption of photogrammetry for topographic mapping
in many different countries. The fi rst textbook on pho-
togrammetry was published by Carl Koppe in 1889.
Data reduction was initially accomplished using
graphical methods similar to those used in standard
surveying. Instruments were designed to automate the
operations involved in drafting, using mechanical joints
to reproduce the projection through the lens. However,
these approaches had the shortcoming of requiring
identifi able points in each image, a diffi culty for topo-
graphic mapping.
The introduction of stereoscopy and the invention
of lens and mirror stereoscopes pointed to a different
approach to the problem, although the fi rst instrument
to use stereoscopic viewing was not introduced until
1896 by Deville in Canada. Based on a Wheatstone
mirror stereoscope, the instrument was not geometri-
cally rigorous and was diffi cult to use since it required
that the operator simultaneously view the stereo model
through half-silvered mirrors and a physical point in
the stereo space.
One of the biggest issues in applying photogram-
metry to topographic mapping was the lack of a suit-
able viewpoint, especially in fl at or wooded terrain.
Laussedat conducted experiments with Tournachon
(Nadar) in 1858 on using photographs from balloons,
although the wet collodion process used was diffi cult
to accomplish in a balloon. With the introduction of dry
plates balloon photography became more practical and
military reconnaissance operations became widespread.
However, mapping presented further problems, includ-
ing covering wide areas and determining the position
and orientation of the photograph. Wide area coverage
was achieved by using panoramic cameras or by using
multiple synchronized cameras at different viewing
angles. Camera position was determined using known
photo-identifi able points or geometric fi gures on the
ground, while mechanical devices were used to maintain
the camera axis in a vertical orientation.
Aerial photography from kites also became com-
mon, using trains of kites carrying stabilized cameras.
Cameras could be lowered to change plates without
lowering the kite.
J. Chris McGlone
See also: Camera Design: Panoramic Cameras;
Camera Design: Stereo Cameras; Meydenbauer,
Albrecht; Military Photography; Nadar (Gaspard-
Félix Tournachon); Panoramic Photography;
Perspective; Aerial Photography; and Stereoscopy.Further Readings
Albertz, J., “Albrecht Meydenbauer—Pioneer of Photogrammet-
ric Documentation of the Cultural Heritage,” Proceedings of
the 18th International Symposium CIPA (International Com-
mittee for Architectural Photogrammetry), Potsdam, 2001.
Blachut, T.J., and Burkhardt, R., Historical Development of Pho-
togrammetric Methods and Instruments, Bethesda: American
Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 1989.
Doyle, F.J., The historical development of analytical photo-
grammetry, Photogrammetric Engineering, 30(2):259–265,
1964.
Koppe, C., Die Photogrammetrie oder Bildmesskunst, Weimar:
Verlag der Deutschen Photographen-Zeitung, 1889.
Meyer, R., 100 Years of Architectural Photogrammetry, Kom-
pendium Photogrammetrie, Vol. XIX, Leipzig: Akademische
Verlagsgesellschaft, pp. 183–200.
McGlone, J.C. (ed.), Manual of Photogrammetry, Fifth Edition,
Bethesda: American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote
Sensing, 2004.PHOTOGRAMS OF THE YEAR
(1888–1961)
Photograms of the Year began as the November 1894
issue of the British journal Photogram. In the inaugural
issue, the editors wrote of their hopes for a separate,
more fully realized volume the following year. Devoted
to photography “as a means of artistic expression fully
up-to-date,” the stated aim of the publication was to
review exhibitions in England and the United States
and reproduce a representative selection for critique.
Henry Snowden Ward and Catharine Weed Barnes Ward,
editors of the Photogram, started the annual. Both had
extensive experience as photographers, writers, and
editors of other photograph magazines, and their names
were well-known in photographic circles in the United
States and England. They knew many infl uential pho-
tographers and writers, and were able to engage people
like A. Horsley Hinton, editor of the British journal
Amateur Photographer and author of several books on
photography; writer and master of the gum-bichromate
process, Robert Demachy and Alfred Stieglitz, leader of
the American Photo-Secession, to write articles.
The annual emerged out of the photography move-
ment known as pictorialism and art photography that
began in the last decade of the 19th century. Until World
War I, the title positioned itself in the center of that
movement in Europe and the United States and played
a secondary role in the dialogue about the nature of
artistic photography stirring the photographic world at