1154
Some amateurs also emerged in this decade, like Aurélio
da Paz dos Reis, who introduced cinema in Portugal
(Porto, 1896), and did extensive stereoscopic work.
In the last decade of the century, and the early years
of the 20th century, there was a signifi cant growth in the
number of photographic studios away from the major
population centres, driven by population movement, and
by a reduction in prices which brought photographic
portraiture within the reach of all levels of society. At
the same time, many more people became involved in
amateur photography in Portugal, as was happening in
other countries.
The fi rst photoengravings made and published in
Portugal appear for the fi rst time in 1890s periodicals,
made by Lisbon’s studios of José Pires Marinho (1894),
Castello Branco & Alabern (1895), and Porto’s Marques
de Abreu (1898).
From the 1840s until the end of the century, French
and British photographic publications were available
in bookshops in Lisbon, Porto, and Coimbra. ‘The
majority of photographic plates, cases, cards, albums,
cameras, and other apparatus was imported and sold by
specialist dealers in the major cities. Only two short-
lived attempts to develop a Portugese manufacturing
industry met with any success—in Lisbon, the factory
of A Portugueza (1899) and the Porto factory of Pinheiro
d’Aragäo & C.a.
Nuno Borges de Araujo
See also: Wet Collodion Negative; Calotype and
Talbotype; Forrester, Baron Joseph James de;
Itinerant Photographers; Relvas, Carlos; South
Kensington Museums; Cartes-de-Visite; Albumen
Print; Collotype; and Photogravure.
Further Reading
Araújo, Helena, et. al.,“Fotografi a e fotógrafos insulares. Açores,
Canarias e Madeira,” [S.l.]: Centro de Estudos de História do
Atlântico / Museu de Fotografi a Vicentes, 1990.
Ramires, Alexandre, “Revelar Coimbra. Os Inícios da imagem
fotográfi ca em Coimbra, 1842–1900,” Lisboa: Museu Nacio-
nal Machado de Castro, 2001.
Sena, António, “História da imagem fotográfi ca em Portugal,
1839–1997,” Porto: Porto Editora, 1998.
Serén, Maria do Carmo; Siza, Maria Tereza, “O Porto e os seus
fotógrafos,” Porto: Porto Editora, 2001.
Teixidor Cadenas, Carlos, “La Fotografía en Canarias y Madeira.
La época del daguerreotipo, el colódión y la albumina, 1839–
1900,” 2.ª ed. Madrid: Carlos Teixidor Cadenas, 1999.
POSITIVES: MINOR PROCESSES
During the fi rst sixty years of photographic experimen-
tation, a host of processes were devised for printing
positives from camera negatives. Their proud inventors
tended to confer idiosyncratic names on these innova-
tions, adding to a bewildering list that obscures the
commonalities of these nineteenth-century processes:
many are just minor variations on well-established
photochemical themes. To confer some structure on
what would otherwise be a miscellany, the processes
for making positive photographs are gathered here into
fi ve basic categories, according to the nature of the light-
sensitive chemical: whether it is a salt of silver, iron,
uranium, or chromium, or an entirely organic compound.
The accompanying Table is intended as an alphabetical
fi nding-aid by name, giving the inventor, date, category,
and essential nature of each process.Silver Halide Processes
The transformation of a silver halide (chloride, bro-
mide, or iodide) into silver metal by the action of light
has always provided the mainstream of photographic
practice. The major 19th-century processes for making
silver positives are described under the entries for Albu-
men, Bromide print, Daguerreotype, Gelatin silver print,
Photogenic Drawing, Salted paper print, Tintype and
Wet Collodion positives. This section outlines the other
named silver processes, which found less widespread
recognition. It may be assumed that the light-sensitive
component was silver chloride and the image consisted
of silver, except when stated otherwise, and that all the
processes (with one exception) were therefore “nega-
tive-working,” i.e., they inverted the tonal scale, mak-
ing a positive from a negative, and vice versa. Many of
these processes differ only in the organic binding agent
which acted as the vehicle for the silver halide, or in
the substrate upon which it was coated. Included here
as photographic “positives” are those silver processes
that actually furnished a negative image, which was then
treated or mounted so that it appeared positive when
viewed under refl ected light, i.e., minor variations of
the Ambrotype, Daguerreotype and Tintype processes.
In the Table, this category of process is designated as
“silver negative.”
Aristotype was just an elegant proprietary name
for a silver chloride printing-out paper, using either
collodion (Johann Obernetter 1868), or gelatin (Paul
Liesegang 1884) as the binder, rather than albumen.
Aristo-Platino was a silver halide paper marketed by the
American Aristotype Company (1894), which required
toning–with gold, platinum, or both. Platino-Matt and
Platino-Bromide papers also belied their names, be-
ing silver halide papers, with starched matt surfaces
to mimic platinotype.The Alabastrine process was a
variant of the Ambrotype invented by Frederick Scott
Archer in 1851: an underexposed wet collodion nega-
tive on glass, presented as a cased object, was backed
in the mount with black paper so that a positive image
was seen by refl ected light. Alabastrine had the added