1299
as a technical “marvel” rather than as a possible means
of artistic expression.
In the pre-unifi cation period, Bologna, the second
most important city in the Papal state, could offer an
emblematic example. In the 1850s, while the fi rst studies
and stable photographic production were beginning, the
local administration attempted to foster the participa-
tion of local artisans in the Universal Expos of London
and Paris. In parallel, exhibitions of a regional nature
were promoted—occurring for the fi rst time in the Ag-
ricultural, Manufacturing, and Industrial Exposition of
1856—in which photography was one of the products on
display. In 1857, the offi cial regulations of the exposi-
tion included a section of “Examples of Photography
and Daguerrotypes,” shown separately from the copper
engravings and lithographs.
At the fi rst Italian Exposition, held in Florence in
1861, all the important names in local photography par-
ticipated. Most of the images displayed were portraits,
while the large studios took the fi rst steps in the sectors
in which they would subsequently specialize: landscape
photography and art reproduction.
Within important traditional events, such as the Ital-
ian General Exposition of Sacred Art in Turin, photog-
raphy was not only widely present but the subject of a
lively debate centered mainly on its artistic potentials
(1898), leading to the creation of the important journal
La fotografi a artistica (1904–1917). In the General
Exposition of Turin of the same year, “Photographic
Art” appeared among the “Liberal Arts” and attracted a
large number of visitors. At the end of the 19th century,
Italian photography periodicals bore witness to the fact
that discussions within the associations centered on
issues analogous to those confronted in the other Euro-
pean countries: artistic photography, its defi nition as a
cultural heritage, the genres, and the relationship with
the applied arts, academy cultures, and the cultures of
the secessionist movements.
Claudia Cavatorta
See also: Flachéron, Count Frédéric A.; Constant,
Eugène; Robinson, Henri Peach; Caneva, Giacomo;
Brogi, Giacomo, Carlo and Alfredo; and Alinari,
Fratelli.
Further Reading
Atti del primo Congresso Fotografi co Nazionale, Torino, Ottobre
1898 [Acts of the 1st National Photography Congress, Turin,
October 1898], Torino: Tipografi a Roux Frassati, 1898.
Atti del Secondo Congresso Fotografi co Nazionale tenuto in
Firenze dal 15 al 20 maggio 1899 [Acts of the 2nd National
Photography Congress held in Florence from May 15–20,
1899], Firenze: Tipografi a di M. Ricci, 1901.
Becchetti, Piero, Fotografi e fotografi a in Italia 1839–1880
[Photographers and Photography in Italy 1839–1880], Roma:
Edizioni Quasar, 1978.
Becchetti, Piero, La fotografi a a Roma dalle origini al 1815
[Photography in Rome from the Origins to 1815], Roma:
Colombo, 1983.
Bertelli, Carlo, and Bollati, Giulio, L’immagine fotografi ca
1845–1945, Annali 2 della Storia d’Italia [The Photographic
Image 1845–1945, Annals 2 of The History of Italy], Torino:
Einaudi, 1979.
Galassi, Peter, Before Photography: Painting and the Invention
of Photography, New York: The Museum of Modern Art,
1981.
Gilardi, Ando, Storia sociale della fotografi a [Social History of
Photography], Milano: Feltrinelli, 1976.
Miraglia, Marina, Culture fotografiche e società a Torino:
1838–1911 [Photographic Cultures and Society in Turin:
1838–1911], Torino: Umberto Alemanni, 1990.
Quintavalle, Arturo Carlo, Gli Alinari [The Alinari], Firenze:
Alinari, 1993.
Quintavalle, Arturo Carlo, Il territorio della fotografi a [The Ter-
ritory of Photography], Milano: Fratelli Fabbri, 1979.
Zannier, Italo, Costantini, Paolo (eds.), Cultura fotografi ca in
Italia. Antologia di testi sulla fotografi a (1839–1949) [Pho-
tography Culture in Italy. Anthology of Texts on Photography
(1839–1949)], Milano: Franco Angeli, 1985.
Zannier, Italo (ed.) Segni di luce. La fotografi a italiana dall’età
del collodio al pittorialismo, [Traces of Light. Italian Photog-
raphy from the Age of Collodium to Pictorialism], Ravenna:
Longo Editore, 1993.SOCIETIES, GROUPS, INSTITUTIONS,
AND EXHIBITIONS IN RUSSIA
Photography became very popular in Russia in the 19th
century. Thus, in St. Petersburg alone, according to the
population census of 1881, photography involved 382
out of 668,000 citizens, and according to the census
of 1890 it involved 443 out of 954,400 citizens. Such
large cities as Moscow, Kiev, Odessa and others also
functioned as photography centers. Fairs housed mobile
photo studios in which the technology of ferrotypes was
primarily used.
The fi rst photo amateurs were often rich or born
noble. As the photo technology became simpler and
cheaper, many middleclass amateurs became involved,
often using photography as a means of self-expression.
The self-expression through photography is why the
amateur photographical societies appeared. Studying
and analyzing the achievements of contemporary pho-
tographers and exchanging experiences were especially
valuable for the provincial amateur photographers.
Before the revolution of 1917 the number of photo-
graphic societies, although varying in size and cultural
signifi cance, amounted to more than 100.
The fi rst decades of the development of photography
were marked by a specifi c emphasis on the equipment.
The fi rst photographic societies were technical societ-
ies. The basis for the fi rst large photographic society
was formed by the Russian Emperor Technical Society
(RETS) established in St. Petersburg in 1866. The
RETS consisted of several branches. It comprised such