INTRODUCTION
MARVIN MEYERn the beginning was wisdom, Hokhmah, Sophia.
One of the earliest forms of exalted expression in the world of Mediter-
ranean and Middle Eastern antiquity was wisdom. Wisdom can be both the
product of experience and the gift of the gods. Wisdom is what the father
teaches the son, the parent the child, the sage the student. Through wisdom
and knowledge, people learn how to speak and act among family and friends
and foes, in social encounters, in the political arena, on the street. Through
wisdom and knowledge, people learn about the world and the ways of the
world, and how to cope with it. Through wisdom and knowledge, people ad-
dress the ultimate questions: Why do the wicked prosper? Why do the good
suffer? What is the end of human life? Is this all there is?
ANCIENT SAGES AND WISDOM LITERATURE
From the times of the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians, wisdom and
knowledge have been seen as keys to a good and successful life. So in Egypt an
old sage, under the name of Ptahhotep, offers advice to his "son" with every-
day observations and clever turns of speech: "Do not let your heart be puffed
up because of your knowledge. Do not be confident because you are wise. Take
counsel with the ignorant as well as the wise. The full limits of skill cannot be
attained, and there is no skilled person equipped to full advantage. Good
speech is hidden more than the emerald, but it may be found with young
women at the grindstones." Again: "If you are a leader commanding the affairs
of the multitude, seek out for yourself every beneficial deed, until it may be
that your own affairs are without wrong. lustice is great, and its appropriate-
ness is lasting; it has not been disturbed since the time of the one who made it,
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