Buid would not assume that practicing mediumship makes them
members of a wider community. Whether other people in the world
have personal spirits or not, and how these other people construe
them, is not a matter of great interest.^1
Having religion does not necessarily imply that one has "a" religion
with a particular doctrine. Those features that we find straightforward
and natural are in fact the outcome of a very specific history. In some
historical conditions, religious specialists group themselves in institu-
tionalized associations (churches, castes, etc.) and diffuse a particular
description of what their function is. It then becomes clear to every-
one, first, that there is a such a thing as "religion" as a special domain [267]
of concepts and activities; second, that there are different "religions,"
that is, different possible ways of practicing religion, one of which is
more valid; third, that adopting a particular religion means joining a
social group, establishing a community of believers, emphasizing the
demarcation between us and them.
SEVERAL DOCTRINES TOO MANY
The fact that people sacrifice to their local spirits or ancestors, that
they participate in common ritual, would seem to strengthen com-
mon identity, which in turn supports cohesion and cooperation. But is
this really the case? Again, we must not mistake official norms for
actual fact. This connection between having the same gods or the
same practices, and being a community, may be more a statement of
what should happen than a description of what happens.
Religious concepts and practices in Java illustrate this difference
between norms and facts. Several religious traditions are combined
here. First, many people, especially in the countryside, are mainly
concerned with various ancestor and local cults that outsiders call
abangan, in contrast to literate religion. Second, there has been for
centuries a strong Muslim influence, such that a majority of the popu-
lation define themselves as such. Muslim schools and institutions are
more present in cities, they have more direct influence on traders and
city dwellers than on peasants, but Islam remains the majority "reli-
gion." Many Javanese define themselves as Hindu, attend the appro-
priate ceremonies and perform worship in Hindu temples. Finally,
some mystical "Javanist" cults seem to represent a modern version of
traditional village concepts, although they were probably influenced
WHYDOCTRINES, EXCLUSION AND VIOLENCE?