buddhi).Anusam.dha ̄nawas “reflective consciousness,” while anuma ̄nawas
inference.Anubhavawas to know the oneness of all things, an awareness that
came at the highest stage of consciousness (turı ̄ya). S ́an.kara was a strict
monist – everything was of one nature, though that which was derived was
inferior to its source.
S ́an.kara is said to have traveled throughout India and to have established
at least four monasteries (ma.tham) including in Ka ̄s ́ı ̄ (Bana ̄ras), S ́rin.geri in
Southwestern India, and at Ka ̄ñcı ̄puram near what is now Chennai (Madras).
He is said to have died by the age of thirty-two but left behind a legacy still
being interpreted by commentators and scholars alike.
Ra ̄ma ̄nuja was of very different background. He was an a ̄ca ̄rya ̄(priest-
preceptor) in the famed Vais.n.ava temple in S ́rı ̄ran.kam, son of an a ̄ca ̄rya ̄
and a disciple of Ya ̄muna. Ra ̄ma ̄nuja sought to give the worship of a
personal god a “philosophical” basis.^21 That is, he was perhaps India’s
greatest “theologian.” He based his ideas on the songs of A ̄l
̄
va ̄rs, on the later
theisticUpanis.ads, and especially the ̄Is ́a ̄andS ́veta ̄s ́vatara Upanis.ads, on the
Bhagavadgı ̄ta ̄and those Pura ̄n.asrelating to the exploits and worship of
Vis.n.u.
For Ra ̄ma ̄nuja, brahmanwas both formless (purus.a) and accessible in
various forms (prakr.ti). The world was the form, the extension of god, like
a paintbrush in the hand of an artist and the painting once completed.
Hence, creation was the rhythm and energy of god and the phenomenal
world was relatively good because it was a manifestation of the divine. The
divine had its own forms (svaru ̄pa) and those forms were many. Moreover,
the divine had at least six functions in relation to the world: providence –
that is, god was constantly interacting with the world; heroism (vı ̄rya); majesty
or prestige (tejas); power (bala); creativity (s ́akti); and omniscience (jña ̄na).
Ra ̄ma ̄nuja is famed for his articulation of the two forms of grace operative
inbhakti. Using analogies already known, he suggested, on the one hand,
there was “cat grace” – the grace of “faith.” The kitten surrenders itself to
its mother, who picks it up by the scruff of its neck. So too was the grace of
god – it is freely given, the divine does the work while the devotee surrenders
in an act known as prapatti. He suggested this is most appropriate for
followers of Vis.n.u.
The other kind of grace was “monkey grace” – the grace of “works.” In this
case the young monkey clings to its mother’s fur. So too does the devotee
work to experience divine grace. By doing certain deeds one could attain
the deity’s grace. Prasa ̄dawas a way of mediating grace – it is exemplified in
the priest’s sharing of the offerings with gathered devotees after the
completion of a temple ritual.
Ra ̄ma ̄nuja was responsible for the spread of Vais.n.avism in the south.
Several temples were converted. It was also after Ra ̄ma ̄nuja’s time that
106 The Post-classical Period