The political context
Three separate sultanates followed the slave kings: the Khaljı ̄s (1290–1316)
only ruled for twenty-six years, but in that period fended off the Mongols
twice.^7 Their hegemony was largely on the boundaries – for example, Bengal,
Kashmı ̄r, and Panja ̄b. The Tughluqs followed (1320–88). It was they who
established the tax (jizyah) on those who were not Muslims (d
̄
h
̄immı ̄s). This
had been a policy in the early Islamic caliphates – the hierarchy usually had
put Arabs at the top (and usually members of the Quraysh tribe at that);
non-Arab Muslims next, and d
̄
h
̄immı ̄slast (a term then applied to non-
Muslims who were “followers of the book” – that is, Jews and Christians).
This group was generally permitted autonomy in Islamic polities, so long
asjizyahwas paid as an indication of one’s recognition of the hegemony of
the political ruler. The Tughluqs proved to be weakened rulers. Muh.ammed
bin Tughluq, for example, was a relatively free thinker, influenced by the
logicianUbaid, who was for that reason opposed by ideologues of the ‘ulama ̄‘
who feared loss of power. A severe famine from 1355–42 also weakened
Muh.ammed’s hand.^8 Among the results of these measures was that the
sultanate came to be divided. Mongol armies were able to enter the domain
during the Tughluq period and plundered Sind and Gujarat. Later yet
(1398)Tamerlaneof Central Asia invaded Delhi and pillaged and plundered
in his wake.^9 The Tughluqs were eventually followed by the Lodı ̄s (1451–
1526). By this time more Hindus were learning Persian, the language of the
courts, and were moving up in the power hierarchy. Some of the Lodı ̄s
continued to make alliances with Hindu princes in the outlying regions,
following a strategy of governance the Tughluqs had initiated – that of
establishing regencies to govern on their behalf on the fringes of the
sultanate. The Lodı ̄s also patronized Hindu arts and culture and combined
Islamic and Hindu notions of kingship to bolster their legitimation. The
Persian word huzu ̄r– “sacred presence” – that is, Alla ̄h’s sanction in the court,
was used to give divine sanction to the sultan.^10 The political leader thus also
was a sacred leader. In the meanwhile, on the outskirts of the sultanate,
outlying ministers were paid to maintain order and allegiance, while officials
were appointed by the sultans to administer the land and see that taxes were
paid by landowners. (These officials came to be known as zaminda ̄rsafter the
Mughal period and represented a practice continued by the British.) In
fact, at least one new caste group was established at this time: the ka ̄yasthas,
a non-Muslim caste which was skilled at writing, knew Persian, and did the
bookkeeping in the courts.
The Mughal dynasty which followed brought Indo-Islamic culture to its
apex.^11 Established by Ba ̄burin 1526, the Mughals increased the exchanges
The Coming of Islam 127