124 CHAPTER SIXWith the Tantras, however, the words themselves are said to have the
power to coerce deities and other forces to do one's bidding. In this respect,
they are closer to Brahmanicallinguistic theory-according to which, sacred
words are identical with Brahma, embodying a level of being and power prior
to that of the material cosmos-than they are to Buddhist linguistic theory, in
which words are simply social conventions.
There is evidence that Tantras were developed and handed down orally
quite early in the Buddhist tradition. The Sinhalese commentaries to the Pali
Canon, whose composition ended in the second century c.E., mention secret
texts passed on from teacher to student, which may or may not have included
Tantric elements. The commentators were careful to recommend that only
those texts compatible with the Buddha's teachings be passed on. In the early
Mahayana, mantras (incantations) associated with Bhai~ajyaguru and Aval-
okitdvara were used for healing and for protection against enemies. The Chi-
nese Canon contains a Siitra composed largely of mantras translated from an
Indian original in 230 C.E.
The largest extant collection of Tantric texts is contained in the Tibetan
Canon (see Section 11.3.2), which follows an Indian scholastic tradition in di-
viding them into the four categories mentioned previously: Action, Perfor-
mance, Yoga, and Unexcelled Yoga. There is little agreement as to whether
the four categories represent the sequential development ofBuddhist Tantrism,
or if they were composed at roughly the same time by different groups pre-
senting different approaches to the question of how to integrate Tantric and
Buddhist practice. However, the four categories seem to offer a fairly logical
progression in terms of practices, pantheons, and doctrines; and although his-
tory rarely operates in 'a smooth progression, it is convenient for purposes of
explanation to present the four categories as a historical sequence.
6.3.1 Action and Performance Tantras
(Strong EB, sec. 5.5.3)The two categories of Action and Performance are virtually identical, although
later tradition maintains that the Action Tantras were to be used as a prelude
to the student's abhi$eka (initiation and consecration) as a full-fledged Tantric
practitioner, whereas the Performance Tantras were to be used after that event.
For purposes of discussion, they may be treated together.
The rituals in these categories follow patterns common to all Tantras. Of
primary importance is the guru, or teacher, who initiates the student into the
details of the ritual. The student is to have absolute faith in the guru and obey
all the vows and requirements the guru demands. Initiation takes place in a
maiJ.~ala, a circle delineated by chalk, powder, or string, separating the ritual
arena from the mundane world outside; in this sense, a maiJ.~ala is the Indian
version of the power circles used in occult traditions throughout the world. In
some cases, the maiJ.~ala is decorated with drawings and diagrams, which the
initiate is told to memorize and then visualize as being imposed on the sur-
rounding world each time he/she performs the rite. In this manner, the realm
of ritual power is transferred from the small circle on the ground into the ini-