176 CHAPTER EIGHTfrom all levels of society, including those orphaned by the sporadic warfare as
well as those whose general exposure to hardship inspired them with the de-
sire for a religious vocation. The Dharma offered solace for those seeking re-
lease from suffering. The sense of dislocation suffered by the elites at this time
resembled that felt in India at the time of the Buddha. Many began question-
ing their cultural ideology and found that Buddhism had satisfactory answers
for their questions. As a result, Buddhism was more and more accepted into
mainstream Chinese culture and began to have an important impact on the
life and values of society as a whole.
The period was remarkable for two major developments. One was the in-
stitution of a Buddhist nuns' order. In 317, Chu Ching-chien (Pure Example;
circa 292-361) was the first Chinese woman to take the novice's precepts.
When joined by 24 other like-minded women, she founded a convent in
Ch'ang-an. Soon other convents were founded in both north and south
China. Not until434, however, was the Bhik~ul)i Sangha established on Chi-
nese soil, when a group of Sri Lankan bhik~u:Qis came specifically for that pur-
pose. This ordination line has lasted in Chinese communities in Taiwan, Hong
Kong, and Singapore up to the present day.
The founding of the Bhik~u:l).i Sangha was a momentous event in the his-
tory of China, for it opened up the possibility of a religious vocation to
women who, up until that point in time, had to lead their entire lives under
the supervision of their "Three Masters": father, husband, and son. Women
with literary or religious talents could now devote their time to study, medita-
tion, and devotion. Many nuns came to prominence as teachers known for
their mastery of classical Chinese literature as well as Buddhist texts. Unfortu-
nately, the rules of their order required that their convents be built within city
walls; they thus incurred all the disadvantages ofbeing close to the centers of
political power. Open to charges of corruption when they were perceived as
wielding too much influence in the imperial courts, they were among the first
to bear the brunt of any imperial crackdowns on Buddhist monastic orders.
The other remarkable development during this period was the widespread
conversion of the ruling elites to Buddhism, beginning in the early decades of
the fourth century. Particularly in the south, sons and daughters of noble fam-
ilies, many of whom had been orphaned during the warfare at the end of the
western Chin, entered the monastic orders. Already versed in the Chinese
classics, their urbanity and erudition proved to be of great assistance in spread~
ing the religion among their fellow members of the nobility, as they brought
home the point that a Buddhist could be "one of us." Although many of the
elite monks took ordination because of a true sense of spiritual need, some, of
them were attracted to the monastic life as a new version of the traditional life
of the retired scholar, who chose a lifestyle of rustic simplicity to devote himl,-1
self fully to art, literature, and philosophical conversation. As a result, Bud,~1
dhist themes began appearing in the traditional scholar's domains of paintin:gl
and literature during the fourth century.
The conversion of the elites, together with the continued spread ofBugii'
<;lhist devotion among the lower classes, brought about a three-way split in th~