BUDDHISM IN CENTRAL ASIA AND CHINA 187though neither is fully true. From this principle, Chih-i was able to build a
system of great complexity and subtlety for comprehending the entire range
of Buddhist doctrines and practice.
Chih-i applied this approach to what he called the three views ofBud-
dhism: the provisional view of existing dharmas, represented by the Abhid-
harmists; the ultimate view of emptiness, represented by Madhyamika; and
the middle or complete view of the Buddha-nature, taught in the Lotus,
Avata111saka, and Nirviit:ta Sutras. This last view points directly at the highest
principle underlying the cosmos, while at the same time comprehending the
truth and limitations of the provisional and ultimate views. Chih-i was sophis-
ticated enough to realize that even the complete view was not an entirely ade-
quate expression ofBuddha-nature; it was simply as close as language could
get. Hence his insistence that study be paired with practice, for only then
could absolute identity with Buddha-nature be fully realized.
Chih-i classified both doctrinal teachings and meditational practices into
three categories: sudden, those that pointed directly to Buddha-nature; grad-
ual, those that used expedient means; and variable, those that mixed sudden
and gradual approaches in a variety of ways. Encompassing all these approaches
was the complete approach, which Chih-i tried to provide in his two great
works: The Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sutra (Fa-hua hsiian-i), dealing with
doctrine; and The Great Calming and Contemplation (Mo-ho chih-kuan), dealing
with meditation practice.
Chih-i followed a passage in the Nirviit:ta Sutra, classifYing the Buddha's
teachings into five flavors corresponding to five dairy products. The first fla-
vor, corresponding to milk, includes the very earliest Buddhist texts; the sec-
ond flavor, the cream, inclpdes the Sutra Pitaka; the third flavor, the curds,
corresponds to the great M~hayana Sutras, such as the Sri mala and the Vi-
malakirti-nirde5a; the fourth flavor, the butter, corresponds to the Prajfia-
piiramita Sutras; and the fifth flavor, the ghee, corresponds to the Nirviit:ta Sutra
itself. Just as cream comes from milk, and curds from cream, and so forth, the
later Sutras come from the earlier ones, being neither identical with nor dif-
ferent from them. Chih-i, following traditions that had developed within
China during his time, made two changes in this lineup. The first flavor, he
said, was the sudden flavor of the Avata1]1saka Sutra, which the Chinese be-
lieved was the first sermon the Buddha delivered immediately after his Awak-
ening; it was called sudden both because it was as direct expression of
Buddha-nature as possible, and also because it made no concessions to the ca-
pacities of its listeners. Most who heard it were bewildered. Thus the Buddha
retraced his steps and began formulating the body of gradual teachings that
make up the Sutra Pitaka.
Chih-i's second main change in the lineup was to include the Lotus S:atra
under the fifth flavor as the most perfect expression of the Buddha's teachings.
This was because it had the same "sudden" message as the Avata111saka Sutra,
but illustrated the message with expedient similes and explanations that made
its meaning perfectly clear to all its listeners. Thus it represents Buddhist doc-
trine at its most complete.