196 CHAPTER EIGHT10.4). In Korea, Tsung-mi's thought provided the basis for Chinul's integra-
tion of Son (Ch'an) and standard doctrinal schools (see Section 9.4.2). This
integration has shaped Korean Buddhism up to the present day.8.5.3 Pure Land (Ching-te)
Pure Land was only briefly a formal school in China, from the sixth to the ninth
century, but it has had a long career as the most popular movement in Chinese
Buddhism. The roots of the movement date back to the Later Han dynasty. A
text translated in the second century C.E. advocated concentrating on or visual-
izing the Buddhas of the 10 directions. Prominent among these Buddhas was
Amitabha (see Section 5.5.4), whose paradise was located in the West.
The first acknowledged patriarch of a Pure Land lineage was a northerner,
T'an-luan (476-542). T'an-luan received his religious vocation when, conva-
lescing from a grave illness, he saw a vision of a heavenly gate opening before
him. He turned first to Taoism and its recipes for attaining immortality; a trea-
tise he composed describing a Taoist meditation technique is still extant. He
then met the Indian monk Bodhiruci, who arrived in Loyang in 508. Bod-
hiruci convinced him that Buddhism had a superior method for gaining ever-
lasting life and taught him the Amitabha texts. T'an-luan was converted and
burned his Taoist books.
Like many meditation masters of the time, Bodhiruci advocated the use of
dhara1;1i (spells) for concentration. T'an-luan's practice gradually developed
into the nien-fo (recitation of the Buddha's name). The term nienjo in T'an-
luan's earliest writings referred to the practice of meditation. There are three
possible meanings for the word nien: (1) concentration or meditation; (2) a
length of time equaHo one thought; hence, the expression shih-nien (1 0 nien)
meant the length of time consisting of 10 thought-moments. This led eventu-
ally to a reinterpretation, as nien also means (3) vocal recitation, with the phrase
shih-nien seen as meaning 10 recitations of the Buddha's name.
T' an-luan organized societies for recitation of Amitabha's name and prop-
agated the Pure Land cult with great success. He also lay the foundations for
its doctrine, declaring that even those who have committed evil deeds and
atrocities are eligible for rebirth in the Western paradise if they sincerely desire
it. However, those who revile the Dharma are excluded, he said, because blas-
phemy is not conducive to aspiration and because the karmic retribution for
blasphemy is repeated rebirth in the lowest hell. Eventually, he came to advo-
cate dependence on t'a-li ("other power") rather than on tzu-li (one's own
power), asserting that even the merit one seems to earn for oneself through
nien-fo is facilitated by the overarching power of Amita's vows. Rebirth in the
Pure Land and attainment of Buddhahood there are a result of this power.
Thus, instead of meditation, the prime requisites of Pure Land practice be-
came faith coupled with recitation of Amitabha's name.
These two points-recitation rather than meditation, and the inclusion of
sinners with those who can benefit from Amitabha's vow-were the main
Chinese departures from Indian Amitabha doctrines. T'an-luan's motive in