Encyclopedia of Society and Culture in the Ancient World

the customer’s dish is mounted, it has to be pointed at the

satellite; otherwise, it fails to pick up the signal. But satellite

dish installers do not have a single, fi xed angle at which they

mount the dish. Th is is because while the satellite is in a fi xed

place relative to the horizon, usually over the equator, homes

are located at various points north or south of the equator.

For a home near the equator, the satellite dish would have to

point upward at a severe angle; for homes in Alaska, the dish

would point at a much lower, fl atter angle. Th is angle is the

azimuth. Like the azimuths used to point to satellites, the azi-

muths of the sun at the summer and winter solstices—that is,

the dates when the sun is highest in the sky in summer and

lowest in the sky in winter—diff er depending on latitude.

Evidence shows that many ancient American structures

were positioned with their angles lined up with the point in

the sky that marked the azimuths of the summer and winter

solstices. Th e purpose in doing so was probably part religious,

part practical. From a religious perspective, it refl ected the

ancient Americans’ view that all of creation is unifi ed. From

a practical perspective, it enabled ancient Americans to take

maximum advantage of light and warmth from the sun.

SOUTH AMERICA: THE SEARCH FOR RESOURCES

Th e ancient South Americans, particularly the people of Pe-

ruvian Andes, made remarkable technical advances in metal-

work, agriculture, and energy production, all based on early

understanding of science. In the fi eld of metallurgy, archae-

ologists have discovered that the Peruvians began to exploit

deposits of copper beginning sometime around 1400–1100

b.c.e. Th ey created an alloy called tumbaga, which was a mix-

ture of gold and copper, though the ratio of these elements

varied widely, from 97 percent copper to 97 percent gold. A

chief technical innovation was adding the element mercury,

which hardened the metal and made it more durable.

Additionally, the Peruvians found gold and silver re-

sources and developed complex technologies for mining,

purifying, smelting, and craft ing them into useful and deco-

rative objects. Along the way they found uses for other miner-

als they mined, including hematite (an iron oxide), limonite

(a mineral with various combinations of other minerals, in-

cluding hematite), and manganese oxide. Th e many varieties

of hematite, including rainbow hematite, kidney ore, martite,

bloodstone, iron rose, and paint ore, suggest that depending

on the mineral’s composition, it had diff erent appearances,

making it a versatile mineral for objects with diff ering aes-

thetic properties.

With regard to energy, the ancient Americans, like peo-

ple throughout the world, burned wood, along with dried

dung and charcoal. In time, however, they also discovered

and mined coal, particularly as some of the forests became

depleted. Archaeologists disagree about whether the Peruvi-

ans used coal in the metal-smelting process. Some argue that

little evidence suggests that they did, but others claim to have

found coal ash in ancient Peruvian smelting sites. Th e Peru-

vians also found uses for bitumen, a substance that is similar

to asphalt or tar and can occur naturally or as a byproduct of

a refi ning process. Th e Peruvians used this sticky material as

a sealant in coffi ns a nd as cau l k ing for ships. Th e eff ectiveness

of that sealant, along with the Peruvians’ skill in mummify-

ing bodies, has given modern scientists unique insight into

the physical condition of the ancient Peruvians.

Th e Peruvians learned to make use of guano, or bat dung,

on nearby islands as fertilizer. Guano is still used as a fertil-

izer because it is high in nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium,

all substances essential to healthy plant growth and abundant

crops. It is believed that the Peruvians used small reed boats

to travel to the islands and transport the guano back to the

mainland for use on fi elds. In some places the guano is be-

lieved to have been as much as 65 feet thick.

MEDICINE

An important part of the scientifi c achievements of any civi-

lization is its ability to fi nd treatments for illness and disease.

Again, much of what might have been known about medical

lore in ancient Mesoamerica has been lost because the invad-

ing Spaniards destroyed the manuscripts that recorded their

various branches of knowledge. Some of this ancient knowl-

edge was later reconstructed, and modern paleopatholo-

gists—those who study disease and illness by examining

preserved tissues from ancient times—have been able to add

to that k nowledge. Genera lly, medica l practitioners in the an-

cient Americas were shamans. Like the astronomer-shamans

discussed earlier, shamans who practiced medicine were be-

lieved to have had access to supernatural power and wisdom.

In common with ancient civilizations the world over, the

ancient Americans made wide use of herbs and other me-

dicinal plants. One early colonial manuscript catalogues 204

medicinal plants from a wide variety of climate zones. While

this manuscript was copied much later, it doubtless refl ects

insights into medicinal cures that were hundreds, if not thou-

sands, of years old. Modern people who think of themselves

as addicted to chocolate might take heart in knowing that

ancient healers of Mesoamerica recognized the therapeutic

benefi ts of chocolate and cacao. Th ey used it not only to de-

liver other medicines but as a medicine in its own right. It

was thought to help people gain weight, stimulate the ner-

vous system, and improve digestion and elimination. Ancient

Americans also used cacao to treat anemia, poor appetite,

gout, kidney stones, fevers, and, in paste form, burns. Inter-

estingly, modern medical researchers have confi rmed what

the ancient Americans knew. Chocolate has been shown to

be an eff ective cough medicine. More important, consumed

in moderation, it is a good source of polyphenols—chemicals

that protect the heart.

See also agriculture; architecture; astronomy; build-

ing techniques and materials; calendars and clocks;

ceramics and pottery; cities; climate and geography;

crafts; death and burial practices; education; em-

pires and dynasties; exploration; gender structures

science: The Americas 949

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