the two city-states with the largest agricultural hinterlands,
namely, Sparta and Athens. Access to the sea was benefi cial
for trade but by no means a requisite for cities in classical
Greece. Th ese factors account for the resettlement of former
urban areas (usually with the same Mycenaean name) dur-
ing the Iron Age, as Greece has always been a land of limited
water and limited agricultural land.
Th e abundance of harbors and ease of access to the sea
for most of the interior fostered a culture of seamanship. Th is
orientation was further driven by the poor mobility between
Greek regions and cities owning to the mountainous and hilly
terrain. In turn, the period of colonization of distant shores
from the eighth through sixth centuries b.c.e. was facilitated
by the experience of the Greeks in managing the geographic
circumstances of their homeland.
Th e hills contributed to the isolation and fragmentation
of the city-states that emerged in the Iron Age. Th e rare plains
lent themselves to the formation of leagues among the cit-
ies and villages ringing them. Th e members of these leagues
would fi ght among themselves over access to resources, but
they formed a united front against outside invaders.
Th e origin of the institutions of classical Greece can be
traced and attributed to the values and experiences of farm-
ers living on this land. Th e sense of individual worth, egali-
tarianism, and independence all followed from attitudes
expressed by and attributed to farmers. Greek writers took
pride in the diffi culty of their climate and soil in regard to
agricultural production. Such characteristics as courageous-
ness, fi erceness, physical strength, and intelligence all sprang
from life on farms, according to classical authors.ROME
BY DAVID B. HOLLANDER
In the Roman world agriculture was the foundation of the
economy, and owning land was the basis of social status.
Th us both the settlement and use of land were of considerable
importance in the development of the empire. Political and
military factors infl uenced where colonies were established,
while economic, cultural, climatic, and geographic factors
determined the location of farms, villages, and towns and
whether they fl ourished or failed.
A number of diff erent kinds of sources shed light on Ro-
man settlement patterns, each with its drawbacks. Literary
sources, such as agricultural manuals and the writings of
elite Romans including Cicero and Pliny the Younger, pro-
vide some information about the size and location of farms
and villas, but these authors rarely discuss the situations and
concerns of any but the wealthiest Romans. Survey archaeol-
ogy, in which a team of archaeologists examines land for sur-
face traces of ancient activity by walking over it, can provide
a much fuller picture of settlement patterns. In many parts
of the empire one still fi nds traces of the boundaries estab-
lished by centuriation, the process Roman surveyors used to
mark out land allotments for new settlers. Surveys reveal theremains of ancient farmhouses and villages as well as those
of larger villas. Th ey can also indicate how settlement pat-
terns changed over time. Nevertheless, survey archaeology
cannot determine who owned a given structure or how much
land was associated with it. Furthermore, it is likely that the
dwellings of the poorest farmers left few traces for archaeolo-
gists to fi nd. Th e excavation of the remains of rural structures
can suggest how the surrounding land was exploited and the
nature of a villa or farm’s interaction with the local environ-
ment and market. Inscriptions and papyrus manuscripts also
sometimes provide information concerning the ownership
and use of land.
Several Roman agricultural manuals have survived from
antiquity. Th e earliest, written by Cato the Elder, dates to the
second century b.c.e.; Varro wrote another about a century
later, and a third was composed in the fi rst century c.e. by
Columella. Pliny the Elder, author of 37 volumes on natural
history, provides additional information. Th ese writers dis-
cuss not only estate management and the cultivation of crops
but also the question of where to build a farm. Many factors
had to be considered when buying agricultural land. Ac-
cording to Cato, ideally, the climate should be good, and the
property should be at the base of a mountain facing south,
having access to water and a supply of labor as well as roads,
navigable waterways, or a nearby town. Good neighbors and
land capable of growing a variety of crops also were consid-
ered desirable features. Varro discusses two other important
factors related to the establishment of rural estates: health
and safety. Proximity to swamps and marshes is undesirable,
while, in certain regions, a farmer might have to contend
with brigands. Varro stresses the advantages of having prop-
erty near a town or village, where one could sell produce and
purchase necessities.
Small estates on the outskirts of Rome could prove im-
mensely profi table if their production was geared toward the
city’s insatiable demand for game, fi sh, and fl owers. Wealthy
Romans frequently built luxury villas where they might re-
lax or entertain guests. Prior to the eruption of Vesuvius in
79 c.e., the land around the Bay of Naples was a particularly
popular location.
Little can be said with certainty about the earliest phase
of Roman settlement during the regal period. Tradition held
that shepherds and outlaws formed the bulk of the follow-
ers of Romulus, Rome’s legendary founder. It is likely that
pastoral agriculture played a more important role in Rome’s
fi rst centuries than it did later. Romans of the late Republic
believed that their ancestors had worked small plots of land
on the outskirts of the city. As the Roman Empire expanded,
three important trends emerged: colonization, the designa-
tion of conquered land as ager publicus (public land), and
growth in the size of upper-class estates. Colonies served
several functions. Th e Romans founded some small colonies,
such as Antium and Ostia, on the coast to protect against sea-
borne attacks. Other colonies were essentially garrisons in
newly conquered territory.settlement patterns: Rome 9710895-1194_Soc&Culturev4(s-z).i971 971 10/10/07 2:30:37 PM