GERMANS
Th e best source on Germanic social organization is the Roman
historian Tacitus (ca. 56–120 c.e.), who describes the people in
his work Germania. Tacitus observes that family and kinship
formed the strongest ties among German people. Clans and
families organized themselves into tribes. Male relatives fought
together. Military squadrons were composed of clans and fam-
ilies instead of random groups of strangers, a bond that Tacitus
claims gave the Germans great courage in battle. To add to the
power of family, German women and children came to watch
their men fi ght in battle, cheering on the brave and tending the
wounds of the injured. Germans were said to have dreaded be-
ing taken captive and especially to have feared having to give
noble women to enemies who beat them in battle.
German government was very loose, and the Germans
had nothing that could be called a state. Th e only time they
organized into large groups was during wartime, when large
numbers of Germans might fi ght together under a single
leader. Th is arrangement was very fl exible, allowing them to
adapt to threats as necessary; some historians believe it was
this fl exibility that helped the Germans avoid being con-
quered by the Romans.
According to Tacitus, the Germans had three types of
leaders: chiefs or kings, generals, and priests. Kings were
hereditary; the sons of a king could hope to become kings
themselves. Kings were expected to provide a good example
for their people, especially in battle, but their power was quite
limited. Th ey could make certain minor decisions on their
own, but for major matters the entire tribe had to participate
and make a group decision. Chiefs were required to be excel-
lent soldiers and to lead the charge in battle. Th eir followers,
who were also their male kinsmen, were expected to defend
the chiefs with their lives. It was considered a disgrace for a
chief to show cowardice or for a follower to walk away alive
from a battle in which his chief had fallen.
Generals were chosen based on their ability. Soldiers who
proved themselves in battle and who combined courage with
intelligence and energy could win the admiration of their
peers and thus become military leaders. Generals, like kings,
lacked arbitrary power over their soldiers and civilians.
Tacitus wrote that German priests had the most real
power. Priests alone were allowed to punish people by rep-
rimand or fl ogging, typically for cowardice or other error in
battle. Religion was the foundation of much of German social
activity. Priests organized numerous festivals. Divination was
a primary method of making decisions. Priests would per-
form various rituals to see what the future was likely to bring,
and the Germans would base their decisions on the results.
German society was hierarchical, organized roughly ac-
cording to birth, age, and military might. Th e various chiefs
were ranked by birth and military prowess, so there was a
chief of the chiefs. Th e highest-ranking chief was the man
with the most followers. Th e followers themselves knew their
respective ranks, determined by the nobility of their lord,their age, and their skill in battle. Young men vied to fi ght
at the side of a chief because doing so was one of the best
ways for them to advance. Th ese young men would also walk
around with a chief during peacetime because it was consid-
ered an honor for a chief to be surrounded by a large group of
faithful soldiers. Chiefs solidifi ed their power by giving large
feasts for their followers. Th ey also gave presents to their sol-
diers and to fellow chiefs.
Chiefs made minor decisions by themselves. For major
matters, the entire tribe would consider the matter and make
fi nal decisions that the chiefs would respect. Tacitus notes that
German tribal meetings were somewhat disorganized. Th e
Germans did not have an accurate means of accounting for
days and nights, so it was diffi cult for them all to assemble at
once. Instead, they would take two or three days to assemble in
one place. Th en they would sit down, still wearing their weap-
ons, and the priests would order everyone to be silent. Th e tribe
members were then allowed to speak in order of rank, starting
with the king or chief. Th e other participants ranked them-
selves by age, fa mi ly, prowess i n bat t le, or spea k i ng abi l it y, a l l of
which were considered important and worthy of distinction.
According to Tacitus, German men had little to occupy
themselves when they were not fi ghting. He wrote that they
spent most of their free time either hunting or lying around
sleeping. Th e women and old men were responsible for the
daily care of the home and the production of food. Each Ger-
man family had a nominal male head, usually the father, who
could make decisions about family members, deciding who
should marry whom and who would live where. German fam-
ilies lived in close quarters. Children had the run of the local
clan area, whether they lived in a village or were in the midst
of travels. Uncles, aunts, and other relatives were expected to
help care for children. Th e relationship between men and the
sons of their sisters was especially close; these men consid-
ered their nephews as important as their own sons. Germans
also solidifi ed family ties through the practice of fosterage, in
which children went to live with relatives for a time.
Th e Germans had no cities. Th ey did not even really have
towns. Th eir villages sprung up with no plan, arising simply
because groups of people all chose to build houses around the
same site. Th eir homes were roughly built of timber, though the
Germans were known to live in caves if they were convenient.
Th e Germans did not use actual currency, but they did
have forms of wealth that allowed them to distinguish rich
from poor. Germans loved gold and silver, which they wore as
jewelry. Chiefs wore the best jewelry. Chiefs also used jewelry
as a form of reward for faithful followers. Fine weapons were
also appreciated. When couples married, they exchanged
gift s of oxen, weapons, and horses.
Like the Celts, the Germans kept slaves. Slaves were typi-
cally prisoners taken in war. German slaves were allowed to
live in their own homes and have families. Th ey functioned
more as tenants of their masters than as household servants.
By the end of the ancient period, the Germanic peoples
had divided into numerous groups, including the Franks, the1030 social organization: Europe0895-1194_Soc&Culturev4(s-z).i1030 1030 10/10/07 2:30:49 PM