this process preserve the fruit itself, but the alcohol in the fer-
mented drinks (or the acid in the vinegar) could be used to
preserve other foods.ROME
BY LYN GREEN
Th roughout the history of Rome, as capital of both a republic
and an empire, the city faced the daunting task of keeping its
growing population fed and supplied. However, unlike some
other urban centers of the ancient world, the local country-
side around Rome was inadequate to feed its massive popu-
lation. To complicate matters further, as Rome grew in size
and wealth, so did the demand for luxuries of all kinds. Th e
growth of the Roman Empire and the spread of the Roman
bureaucracy also increased demand for the same sorts of
products throughout the vast territories as offi cials tried to
maintain the lifestyle they had enjoyed in Italy. Th is demand
necessitated a complex web of shipping routes and the facili-
ties and techniques necessary to store goods of all kinds.
Although Roman writers liked to recall the good old days
when their ancestors lived on pulmentarium (stew or por-
ridge made of grains or beans), bread was the most important
item in the Roman diet. Although spelt, barley, or rye could
be used to make bread, wheat made the best loaves. Unfor-
tunately, wheat was not a crop that grew well in Italy. North
Africa and especially Egypt were the major exporters of wheat
throughout the ancient Mediterranean, and trade routes from
the ports of the African coast to Ostia were vital to the sur-
vival of Rome. However, as the wheat would fi rst be stored,
then shipped to Rome by boat, and then stored at Rome, some
method of processing grain for storage was essential.
In order to avoid spoilage, grain must be kept in a cool,
d r y, a nd da rk place. Th ese places must a lso be desig ned to keep
out such vermin as mice or rats, which would eat or contami-
nate the food. In the drier areas of the Mediterranean, such as
Spain, the grain could be stored in underground pits that were
lined with straw and tightly sealed. Th e Roman author Varro
(116–27 b.c.e.) also mentions that the farmers of Th race stored
their grain in caves. In northern Spain and southern Gaul,
the grain was stored in huge terra-cotta jars called pithoi or in
silos. Varro also suggests using above-ground granaries that
were ventilated by windows and raised up on wooden sup-
ports to allow air circulation. Another ancient description of
these granaries mentions that they had brick walls 3 feet thick
and were accessed from above. Th e author of that description
also states that amurca, the dregs of pressed olives, should be
incorporated into all the tiles and plaster used to seal the gra-
naries in order to discourage vermin.
Wherever Roman legions went, they built large grana-
ries, sometimes intended to hold enough food to last through
a yearlong siege. Th ese were originally built of timber, but
aft er Trajan’s (r. 98–117 c.e.) time stone granaries became
more common. In either case, the grain was probably stored
in sacks or baskets rather than piled loosely in chambers.Th e containers would have made the job of measuring out
rations much easier and would have served as barrier to ver-
min. Th e biggest civil granaries were undoubtedly those at
Ostia, where the grain from Africa was delivered. Two types
of granaries have been excavated at Ostia: a building consist-
ing of long, narrow rooms facing a courtyard and two rows
of rooms opening off a central corridor. Some granaries show
evidence of stairs leading to an upper fl oor. Archaeologists
are confi dent that grain was stored on the lower fl oors, but
grain was of course only one of the items that could be stored
in these buildings.
A number of methods of preserving food were known to
the ancient Romans, and the choice of which one to use de-
pended on the local climate and the type of food being stored.
Drying, salting, smoking, and pickling were the most com-
mon ways of preserving food. Some fruits, like grapes, fi gs
and dates, naturally lent themselves to drying without loss
of fl avor. Th ey could also be packed in honey or in a mix-
ture or honey and boiled wine. Beans, peas, lentils, and pulses
were also dried, while cucumbers and olives were pickled in
brine. Fish and meat were oft en salted by being immersed
in brine, although in the hot, dry areas of the empire they
could also have been wind-dehydrated. Pickling food could
be done using beer vinegar, fi g vinegar, wine vinegar, wine,
and sour milk. Th e increased acidity of the food discourages
the growth of bacteria, as does alcohol. As the Romans did
not use distilled alcohol, wine or even beer could be used to
preserve foods.
Pork was the most popular meat for upper-class Romans,
but it did not keep well and care had to be taken to preserve it
soon aft er slaughtering. To salt the meat, ancient authors rec-
ommend rubbing it with coarse salt each day for 12 days. For
the fi rst three days, between rubbings, it was kept pressed un-
der weights to squeeze out excess moisture. Sometimes this
step could be followed by further drying or smoking. Pork
could also be salted in jars. Th e deboned pieces of meat were
jammed into the jars and layered with salt until the container
was crammed full. Th en it was sealed tightly. Th e same meth-
ods were used to prepare salt fi sh. In the 1990s some archaeol-
ogists experimented with using spices to preserve food. Th ey
discovered that cinnamon, cumin, onion, and especially gar-
lic slowed or even stopped t he grow t h of microorganisms t hat
would cause food to spoil. Black pepper, on the other hand,
was not very eff ective in stopping bacterial growth.
Although there were ice houses in the ancient world,
they were not always available. Th erefore, the Romans devel-
oped other methods of keeping the color, scent, and shape of
preserved foods: Th ey prevented any air from reaching the
food and starting the process of decay. Th ere are a number
of diff erent techniques described by the ancient writer Colu-
mella (fi rst century c.e.). For example, he states that if grapes
are picked with their stems on, the ends of the stems should
be sealed with pitch to keep out the air. Th is method is also
recommended by other ancient authors for apples, quinces,
cherries, plums, and pears. Quinces and pomegranates couldstorage and preservation: Rome 10690895-1194_Soc&Culturev4(s-z).i1069 1069 10/10/07 2:30:57 PM