trees” of Upper Egypt and Ethiopia, and that of the ruler
Ezana of Axum, who spoke of destroying crops of corn and
cotton in the Nile Valley in 350 c.e.—prove the existence of
cotton plants at this time. Linen textiles found in the tombs
may have come from Egypt, where the fl ax plant was culti-
vated; linen weaving had been known much earlier; and, by
the fourth century c.e., the trade in linen cloth was thriv-
ing. Egyptian texts of the New Kingdom (1550–1070 b.c.e.)
refer to fl ax fi elds in Nubia, suggesting that at least fl ax may
have been produced in Nubia, and perhaps linen was made
there as well.
Many of the cloths used as burial shrouds were adapted
for this use but were originally made for other purposes, such
as clothing or sheets. Textile bags and carpets were also found
in the tombs. Among them the plain-weave fabrics were lo-
cally made, whereas others were imported. It is also clear that
in the earlier periods, plant fi bers were used before animal
fi bers became prevalent. Later, in the Common Era, the use
of plant fi bers returned. Many of the textiles were decorated
or dyed. Dyeing was done before the fi bers were woven. Lo-
cally made textiles were dyed with local dyestuff s, yielding
colors of brown, yellow, blue, and red. Yellow and blue were
combined to produce green. Th e imported textiles, including
carpets, were more elaborately colored with purple, yellow,
and orange dyes.
Fibers were spun into yarn using various spindles and
techniques. Th ree types of spindle were used for cotton and
one for wool. Most yarn was spun so that the fi bers twisted
together in an S confi guration. Th e art of weaving was well
developed by the Meroitic period. Looms had been in use in
Egypt since at least the Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 b.c.e).
Th e earliest representations of looms in Egyptian art show
women using horizontal types. Th e more complex vertical
looms used by men were introduced later. Textiles found in
Nubia show evidence of both simple and complex looms.
Several types of techniques of weaving were used, including
plain weave, twill, and pile weave. In some cases, textiles were
woven into specifi c shapes of garments on the loom. Finely
woven mats of reed and grass may have been made on a loom
as well. Th e Nubian textiles were decorated with geometric
motifs, foliate motifs (patterns representing trees or grain,
for example), and stripes rendered in various colors. One
surviving cloth has purple murex-dyed stripes and was obvi-
ously imported. Some textiles had tasseled edges. Decorative
elements were created using various weaving techniques or
needlework. Stitching was used to decorate the cloth and to
bind cloth strips on the selvedges.
Bark cloth production began before 4000 b.c.e. and is
still produced in Africa in the Ituri rain forest. Bark cloth is
typically made of the inner bark of mulberry or fi cus, which
has been stripped and retted. Th e glutinous sludge resulting
from the retting is beaten into large, thin sheets that could
be colored by pigments such as ocherous earths and tannins.
Th e fi nished sheets could then be fashioned into garments,
coverings, or other items.EGYPT
BY ERIN FAIRBURN
Egypt is unique among ancient cultures in that the desert lo-
cation of funerary sites has preserved many objects of perish-
able nature that are infrequently, if ever, to be found at other
ancient sites. Textiles are especially important among these
rare artifacts. Th ey shed light on how ancient peoples adapted
to and utilized their environs, and their analysis can provide
interesting insights into ancient technology. Egyptian textiles
were used for garments, bedding, animal equipment, and
lamp wicks, among other things, and were oft en recycled as
mummy wrappings.
Almost all ancient Egyptian textiles were made of fl ax
(Linum usitatissimum). Depending on when the fl ax was cut,
the resulting threads and cloth would be a light or a golden
brown color; however, the linen could be whitened by using
a substance, such as natron, or by sun bleaching, as was oft en
done to “royal” linen. Th e fl ax fi bers were obtained through a
process of beating and soaking the stalks until the soft interior
was separated out. Th e fi bers were then combed and dried.
Once the fi bers had been thus prepared, they were ready
to be spun. Th e spinning process began by roving, or roll-
ing, the fi bers on the thigh until they were loosely twisted.
Th is rove would be rolled around a reel and placed in ceramic
vessel or basket with a hole on the top. Th e fi bers would be
drawn from these vessels during the spinning process. Th ey
were spun onto a spindle of wood with a whorl (pulley) on top
made of wood, stone, or ceramic.
Th ree types of spinning were used in ancient Egypt. Th e
fi rst technique produced thread by feeding the fi bers onto the
spindle with the fi ngers and rolling the spindle on the thigh
to twist them. Th e second required a forked stick or ring
through which to draw the thread while twisting the spin-
dle between both hands. Th e third technique, the suspended
spindle method, involved grasping the fi bers with one hand
while letting the rotating spindle swing free, thereby twisting
the fi bers. Counterclockwise spinning was the most common
type in ancient Egypt; that is, the fi bers were S-spun.
At this point, the spun fi bers could be dyed. Dying does
not appear to have been prevalent in ancient Egypt, but tex-
tile producers clearly knew how to produce a range of colors.
Egyptian textiles contained threads dyed red, blue, yellow,
brown, green, and purple. Th ese colors were all created with
vegetal (plant-based) colorants; brown, green, and purple
were produced by overdying. While weavers did on occasion
dye an entire piece of completed weaving, it was more com-
mon for them to embellish an undyed linen garment with
colored threads.
Once the threads were prepared, they could be woven.
Egyptians used two kinds of looms for textile weaving: a hori-
zontal loom that was used throughout the Dynastic Period
and a vertical loom that was used beginning in the New King-
dom (ca. 1550–ca. 1070 b.c.e.). Horizontal looms lay parallel to
the ground with the beams pegged into place. Vertical loomstextiles and needlework: Egypt 10750895-1194_Soc&Culturev4(s-z).i1075 1075 10/10/07 2:30:58 PM