fl int in northern areas), the exchange system was probably
based on simple down-the-line trade involving balanced reci-
procity. An event that changed Europe forever was the begin-
ning of agriculture toward the end of the Mesolithic.
Th e fi rst phase of agriculture diff usion occurred in a
southwest–northwest direction, following the core–periph-
ery model. Agriculture certainly brought changes in subsis-
tence and the economy, but most signifi cant was the social
transformation. Another important event that took place in
the late Neolithic was the discovery of copper. All this un-
doubtedly infl uenced social interaction and exchange sys-
tems. Th e quantity of traded goods increased, and some of
them were seen as a way to gain social status. Signifi cant
movements of goods took place in the Mediterranean (ob-
sidian); as far north as the Balkans (Spondylus shell); and
in central, northern, and western Europe (axes, such as the
Langdale ax in Britain and the Plussulien ax in France). Al-
though organized long-distance trade was yet to develop,
goods (especially nonperishable items) were circulated over
vast distances through a system referred to as down-the-line
trade. Food and other perishable materials were exchanged
within much smaller areas.
Toward the end of the Neolithic, prehistoric Europe once
again underwent a revolution brought about by a technologi-
cal advance: metal alloying. At the beginning of the Bronze
Age most artifacts, tools, and weaponr y were made of bronze,a copper and tin alloy. Consequently, exchange systems be-
came linked to the desirability and accessibility of that metal
(one of the main centers of bronze production and distri-
bution was the Carpathian Basin). Further developments
in transportation, on both water and land facilitated the
consolidation of established long-distance trade networks.
Although trade links over long distances were already pres-
ent in the Neolithic Period, it is only in the Bronze Age that
archaeological records show the presence of long-distance
trade routes linking north to south and east to west. All sorts
of goods—including axes, swords, and pottery—were traded
over these networks, but some of the longest and oldest long-
distance trade routes were the amber routes in the Baltic and
Mediterranean regions.
Trade routes rarely stayed the same but changed direc-
tions through space and time. Th orough analyses of archae-
ological records show the kinds of events (socioeconomic
and political instability, migrations, wars, and so on) that
caused them. Exchange mechanisms improved considerably
in the Neolithic. Th e down-the-line system still prevailed,
but the fi rst ports of trade started to appear, especially in the
Mediterranean (for example, Gadir in Spain). Coinage was
not yet in use, but certain categories of artifacts defi nitely
operated as barter tokens. Th e later part of the Bronze Age
was characterized by a new change in social context. Th e
appearance of hill forts, fl at cemeteries, and fi eld systemsLuxury imports from Italy, Rome, and the Near East, found at Hertfordshire, England, and dating to the Iron Age (20 b.c.e.–50 c.e.) (© Th e
Trustees of the British Museum)1102 trade and exchange: Europe0895-1194_Soc&Culturev4(s-z).i1102 1102 10/10/07 2:31:04 PM