by oxen and only later by horses. Th e wheels were solid and
heavy, typically constructed out of three joined pieces of wood.
Th e axle was fi xed so that only the wheels turned. In time the
Europeans discovered ways to make wagons and carts more
maneuverable. One chief innovation, dating from the second
millennium b.c.e., was the use of spoked wheels rather than
solid wheels. Th e earliest wheels were made entirely of wood,
but Celtic metalworkers in central Europe learned to attach a
metal band around wheels, making them far more durable on
rough roads. Another innovation was the development of axles
that turned, making wagons and carriages much more nimble.
Wagons pulled by oxen were used primarily by farm-
ers in their fi elds and around their settlements during the
Bronze Age. Th e archaeological record provides enough
evidence for archaeologists to make good guesses as to what
such carriages looked like. Among the most important fi nds
are portions of wagons discovered in Holland. Th ese wagons
were constructed with solid wheels (that is, wheels without
spokes), a forked undercarriage, a forked shaft , axles, and a
large wickerwork “basket” on top for passengers or materi-
als. Wagon technology improved during the Iron Age. Th e
tomb at Hochdorf in Germany that dates to approximately
530 b.c.e. contained a four-wheeled wagon about 6.5 feet
long, with a pole for attaching it to a team of oxen or horses
extending over 6.5 more feet. Each wheel had 10 spokes. A
similar wagon was found in a tomb at Vix in France.
Horses and particularly lightweight carriages were used
primarily by the social elites. Among the most important car-
riage fi nds are six carriages called the Dejbjerg carriages, named
for the bog in western Denmark where they were found. Th ese
carriages might have been built by the Celts in central Europe,
who developed a tradition of expert carriage making. Th ese
wagons were probably used by headmen, and probably on cere-
monial occasions primarily. Th ey were much lighter than agri-
cultural wagons and featured spoked and iron-banded wheels
and bronze ornamentation. Th ey were constructed of ash and
beech, both of which are especially durable woods.
In addition to carriages and wagons the Europeans de-
veloped a type of chariot. Th e ancient Celts in Ireland drove
a vehicle called a carpat, a word similar to the Latin word
carpentum used by the ancient Romans, to refer to these ve-
hicles. Historians long believed that these words and the ve-
hicles they named were unrelated, but more recent research
suggests that they are in fact related. Th e chariot was a light,
two-wheeled, horse-drawn vehicle mounted on a fl exible
suspension. Above the suspension was a platform on which
the rider stood and a seat—all protected by a fabric covering
called a tent. Examples of these chariots, dating from as far
back as 500 b.c.e., have also been found both in Yorkshire in
England and on the Continent.
Th e chariot was used for purposes of warfare, but that
was not its primary purpose. As a military vehicle, it served to
transport soldiers and their gear, but actual fi ghting was done
on foot. Th e chariot, rather like a modern-day sports car, was
a mark of status. Members of the elite class used chariots totravel about or visit their neighbors in stately fashion. Th ey
were also used by young men who wanted to display their
style and daring, for the chariot was used in races and, in
particular, for such feats as riding pell-mell over creeks or
ditches; the fl exible suspension enabled the rider, at least most
of the time, to make a relatively soft landing.
Th e use of wheeled vehicles for long-distance trans-
portation required the improvement of the road system of
ancient Europe, which had existed for millennia as beaten
tracks through the forest. Roads connected the Celtic oppida,
or towns, which greatly facilitated trade and movement of
military groups. Th e invading Romans made use of this road
structure as well as improving it further. Th e Roman Empire
relied on effi cient transportation for administration and trade,
so in addit ion to bui lding roads, t he Roma ns bui lt some ca na ls
in Europe. In the fi rst century of the Common Era, the Roman
general Drusus built a canal that connected the Rhine River
with the IJssel River in Holland. In England the Romans built
the 11-mile-long Fossdyke canal near Lincoln, connecting the
river Witham with the river Trent, and the 40-mile-long Caer-
dyke canal in the same area. Otherwise, the Romans found
canal building to be impracticable in their northern colonies.GREECE
BY CHRISTOPHER BLACKWELL
Transportation in the ancient Greek world was dominated
by the sea. Overland travel was arduous and oft en unneces-
sary. Th e Greek mainland is mountainous and rugged, and
the Greek population was concentrated in the coastal areas to
the east and west of the northern Balkan Peninsula, around
the edges of the southern peninsula of the Peloponnese, and
scattered across the islands of the Aegean Sea and along the
coast of Asia Minor.
Th e many separate population centers of Greece were
not politically unifi ed in any sense of the word until the late
fourth century b.c.e., and even then only into a relatively
loose structure of military dominance by Macedonia. Greek
communities, isolated by geography and largely self-suffi -
cient, had no need for swift overland commerce—in contrast,
for example, to the Persian Empire, whose bureaucracy re-
quired and provided a network of “Royal Roads” with well-
maintained stations set at intervals and supplying food, rest,
and fresh animals for offi cial travelers.
Land transportation among the ancient Greeks was
largely a matter of walking. Horses were not common outside
the plains of Th essaly in the northeast of Greece and were not
prized as draft animals. Along the few main roads mules or
oxen were the preferred beasts of burden. Oxen (cattle trained
to the harness) were stronger than mules or horses but very
slow. Mules (the off spring of a female horse and a male don-
key) aff orded the best combination of strength and speed.
Overland travel was made perilous by bandits, especially in
places where roads passed far from centers of population. Th e
myth of the Athenian king Th eseus emphasizes the heroismtransportation: Greece 11170895-1194_Soc&Culturev4(s-z).i1117 1117 10/10/07 2:31:08 PM