had the superior military organization of troops on the bat-
tlefi eld that was necessary for victory in the Iron Age world,
as well as much superior discipline among their troops.
Pharaoh Taharqa (r. 690–664 b.c.e.) retreated to Th ebes
and then to Napata. His family in Th ebes was murdered by
the Assyrians. Th e Assyrians made the cities of Egypt north
of Th ebes their vassals. Taharqa was succeeded by Tantamani
(r. 664–657 b.c.e.), who believed himself to be the only true
ruler of Egypt. In 664 b.c.e. he led a Kushite force against
an alliance of Egyptian vassals and Assyrians. Th e key to his
success seems to have been mastery of the waters of the Nile;
boats may have moved his forces swift ly into position.
By this time the Kushites had probably noted the value of
the iron technology of the Assyrians, and Kush had already
begun to establish an iron industry. In 664 b.c.e., however,
the Kushites had to rely on their ferocity to overcome their
enemies, which they did in a battle at Memphis. Tantamani
regained control all the way to the Mediterranean Sea, but too
much had changed in the Near East. His allies in Palestine
had been defeated by the Assyrians, and combat had depleted
his military’s resources. Despite waging a stubborn defense,
his army was driven ever southward by a determined coun-
terattack of Assyrian forces commanded by Ashurbanipal (r.
668–627 b.c.e.). Th ebes was sacked, its women raped, its chil-
dren slaughtered, and its men enslaved.
Although Tantamani’s line would survive until about
300 c.e. and its monarchs would call themselves the rulers
of both Upper and Lower Egypt, they would not again rule
Egypt. Th ere is some indication that they tried again in about
601 b.c.e., when Babylon attacked Egypt. Th e Kushite army
fought an army composed of Greek and other mercenaries
near Abu Simbel, about 250 miles south of Th ebes. Th e battle
was ferocious, but the Kushites were forced to withdraw. Al-
though the rule of Kush over Egypt was short, it had a long-
lasting eff ect on Egyptian society: It reinvigorated Egypt’s
religion, arts, and economy for hundreds of years.
Th is was not the end for the Kushite military. Most
Kushite kings and queens proved to be capable rulers who
incorporated what had been learned from the Assyrians into
their army. Th e Kushite iron industry focused on the city of
Meroë, south of Napata, just south of where the Atbara River
fl ows into the Nile. Aft er an Egyptian army sacked Napata,
the capital of Kush was moved to Meroë. Th e principal duties
of the army became protecting Kush’s trade routes that ran
deep into southern Africa, west along the Sahel steppes south
of the Sahara, and east to the Red Sea. Kushite inscriptions
depict numerous battles, mostly against nomadic peoples.
Kush assumed the role of protector from raiders for small
tribal lands to its south. Elephants seem to have faded out of
use in the army, as did chariots. Th ey were replaced by horse-
back-riding cavalry armed with lances and bows. Spearmen
remained the core of the army.
Specifi c military actions for Kush reappear in the histori-
cal record in 24 b.c.e. By then Rome controlled Egypt, and
the Romans had built a series of forts south of Egypt, pos-sibly infringing on territory that Kush regarded as its own. At
that time Kush was ruled by a queen, called a candace, which
Greek writers mistook for a given name rather than a title.
Th is was probably Queen Amanirenas, a big woman with an
imposing personality. Th e Roman governor responsible for
the forts left with most of his troops to aid in fi ghting in the
Near East. Although Amanirenas was probably present for
the attack on the fort at Aswān, her army was led by a general,
perhaps a Prince Akinadad, who is linked with her in inscrip-
tions found in Meroë. Using boats and infantry the Kushite
army assaulted and seized forts at Aswān and Philae. In the
marketplaces there the Romans had installed statues of the
emperor Augustus (r. 27 b.c.e.–14 c.e.), which the Kushites
took home. A head that may have been from one of these stat-
ues was found by archaeologists hidden in clean sand under
the entrance to a building in Meroë.
When the Roman governor, Gaius Petronius, returned,
he counterattacked. Although the Kushite army dominated
regional African groups, it was no match for the Romans, and
despite stubborn fi ghting the army was driven south by the
Romans. Amanirenas tried to negotiate with the Romans, but
the Romans persisted until they captured and sacked Meroë.
Several Kushite towns were left in ruins.
How Kush fell is not known. A rival kingdom, Axum, left
some hints, and archaeologists have found additional clues.
In about 300 c.e. Kush lost its constant war against nomads.
Among the nomads were the Red Noba, who were in control
of Kush when Axum invaded in 350 c.e. Th e key to the no-
mads’ victory may have been camels, which enabled them to
travel farther more quickly in dry climates than could horses,
and Kush was drying up as the desert of the Sahara continued
its spread. Where the Kushites went is a subject historians and
archaeologists like to debate, but at present what happened to
the Kushites is unknown.AXUM
Axum was located where Ethiopia is today. At its height it
was one of the great powers of the Indian Ocean, where its
navy transported its army to fi ght in distant lands. Although
Axum had a distinct culture of its own by 1500 b.c.e. and
developed a written language, less is known about it than
about Kush.
Axum’s focus was on trade, and throughout its history it
was a mercantile nation. Th us its military’s primary duty was
to protect trade. By about 400 b.c.e. Axum’s navy was large,
and it sailed along the coast of eastern Africa and as far east
as Sri Lanka. In the Red Sea and along Africa’s east coast it
protected merchant ships from pirates. By maintaining safe
waters Axum attracted the sea trade to its ports. Visitors to
the ports saw imposing stone forts on hilltops along Axum’s
coast. Th ese forts apparently represented a military class that
held much political power in Axum society.
Th e king of Axum was the commander in chief of the
military, and he sometimes led his army into battle. Th e
army was run by nobles who based their operations in thewar and conquest: Africa 11250895-1194_Soc&Culturev4(s-z).i1125 1125 10/10/07 2:31:10 PM