During the Roman conquest of Europe the Romans lost an
entire legion near Belgium when a group of Celtic tribes under
unifi ed leadership fought them. Th e charismatic Celtic leader
Vercingetorix (d. 46 b.c.e.), who had recently become chief of
the Averni tribe, persuaded tribes from all over Europe to join
into one army under his command. He lost battles to the Ro-
mans but kept his alliance intact, and he switched to guerilla
warfare, which the Romans were ill equipped to handle.
Th e Celts burned their farms so the Romans would not
fi nd food, and they killed Roman units that were sent away
from their main army to forage. Vercingetorix’s crucial mis-
take was to take his army to Alesia, a fortifi ed city in central
Europe. It is likely that he did not know enough about Roman
tactics to grasp that Roman engineers would build a forti-
fi cation to surround Alesia to starve him out. He probably
hoped that the Romans would be caught between relief forces
from the north and his army in Alesia. Th e fractiousness of
the Celts contributed to their downfall. Some refused to help
and were later overwhelmed by the Romans. Others refused
to send all their warriors. Th ree times the Celts attacked the
Roman fortifi cations simultaneously from inside and out,
twice nearly penetrating Roman lines and overwhelming the
Romans. More warriors might have been enough for success,
but the Celts were forced to surrender. Vercingetorix was im-
prisoned and later executed in 46 b.c.e.
Another able leader undone by Celtic customs of war was
Queen Boudicca (d. 60/61 c.e.). She was the widow of a king of
the Iceni, a tribe in eastern Britain. Th e Romans governed the
Britons harshly, but her tribe had managed to keep the peace.
Th e spark that touched off a fi restorm was the rape of two Iceni
girls by Roman soldiers. How old Boudicca was is unclear. She
was old enough to have had a 12-year-old daughter, but she
could still have been in her late 20s. She is usually imagined
as middle-aged. She was described as big, but Celtic women in
general looked big to the Romans. Nonetheless, she was either
imposingly tall or heavy or both. Her blazing red hair hung
down to her waist. In battle she painted half her body green
and wore a large robe. She was said to be a sorceress.
In western Britain 10,000 Roman troops were slaugh-
tering Druid priests. Perhaps as many as 10,000 marched to
suppress Boudicca’s rebellion. She had drawn to her about
100,000 warriors from homesteads across Britain. Instead of
their usual frontal charge, the Celts quietly surrounded the
Romans in a forest and then attacked from all sides at once.
Th ey killed nearly every Roman soldier. Th eir attacks on Ro-
man towns and fortifi cations were similarly disciplined. Th ey
seemed unconcerned with taking trophies but fought the Ro-
man way, totally destroying the enemy. Th e Roman governor
fl ed London with his troops, leaving it to Boudicca’s army.
By the time Boudicca brought her army to bear on the
10,000 Roman soldiers marching from the west, having ex-
terminated the Druids, she had more than 200,000 warriors,
along with supply wagons and fi erce Celtic women to defend
them. Th e Romans were holed up in a small valley. Boudicca
arrayed her forces in a line to face them. Charioteers put ontraditional Celtic shows of skill and bravery. Th e Romans
stepped forward in a jagged line of V formations designed
to break up the Celts’ solid line, allowing Roman soldiers to
hack at their foes from the front and the sides. Th e Celtic mis-
take was to allow themselves to be provoked. Th ey charged as
a mass, making a din so frightening that the Romans nearly
panicked. Th en the Celts pressed in on each other, trying to
get at the Romans. Chariots overturned. Warriors suff ocated.
Th e Roman line held, and the Celts panicked. Following a
longstanding tradition for Celtic war leaders, Boudicca com-
mitted suicide when it was clear the battle was lost.THE GERMANS
By Caesar’s era the Celts were beleaguered not only by the Ro-
mans from the south but also by the Germans from the north
and east. In fact, Caesar began his campaign to conquer Gaul
by fi rst driving away Germanic invaders. Th ese Germans
came primarily from the north but were conquering their way
through northeastern Europe and would eventually threaten
Roman Europe from both north and east. Th eir motivations
for conquest varied. Sometimes a tribe’s population grew so
much that the tribe chose to expand its territory to accommo-
date its growth. Sometimes a natural disaster or an invasion
of its territory drove a tribe from its homes and into territory
claimed by someone else. Oft en the conquest was inspired by
a desire for loot. At other times a leader wanted glory.
War chiefs tended to serve only while a war lasted. Cus-
toms varied among Germanic tribes, with some choosing one
leader while others chose two. One reason for choosing two
might have been to prevent either one from using his power
to make himself the permanent king. In early campaigns
against Germanic armies the Romans noted that the Ger-
mans seemed wild and ill equipped. A German warrior was
expected to supply his own weapons and armor. Th is meant
that German armies of the fi rst century b.c.e. oft en featured
warriors wearing only breechcloths (loincloths), without
even protection for their heads. Oft en they had no shields.
Th ey just carried spears and rarely axes or swords. In the
close hand-to-hand combat that both Romans and Germans
favored, the Romans cut the Germans to pieces.
Th e Germanic fi ghters diff ered from the Celtic warriors
in an important way: Th ey knew how to fi ght as units and
were accustomed to having a long-term strategy. Like the
Celts, they liked to show off their courage, toughness, and
prowess. In the dead of winter men would ride naked and
bareback on horses to display their contempt for discomfort.
Th ey were used to being cold, tired, and uncomfortable, and
in the long run they would prove to be formidable opponents
for other Europeans.
Th e basic Germanic fi ghting unit was the family. Fam-
ily members stayed together during marches and battles and
were responsible for each other’s well-being. If a war chief
failed to satisfy his troops with his leadership, families could
desert, choosing to return to protect their homes rather than
serve someone they did not trust. An army could disintegratewar and conquest: Europe 11430895-1194_Soc&Culturev4(s-z).i1143 1143 10/10/07 2:31:14 PM