century b.c.e., fi rst visible in 371 b.c.e., when the notion of
a common peace among Greek states developed; however,
the idea had little practical eff ect and never excluded warfare
against non-Greeks. Peace among the Greeks was achieved
only by Roman control.THE MYCENAEAN PERIOD
Th ere is little available evidence for the earliest period of
Greek warfare, the Mycenaean Period. It is generally assumed
that the Greek mainland and islands were divided into a num-
ber of small kingdoms centered on heavily fortifi ed citadels.
Given the absence of any contemporary description of war-
fare, inferences have to be made on t he basis of archaeologica l
fi nds of weapons and contemporary pictorial representations
of fi ghting in frescoes and reliefs. An additional source of
information is provided by the Linear B tablets. Th ese tab-
lets are accounting documents produced by the palaces and
written on clay. Th ey highlight the importance of chariots in
this period. Large numbers of tablets as well as replacement
parts for them were maintained. In addition, a set of tablets
from the kingdom of Pylos in the southwestern Peloponnese
details the organization of a coastal watch in response to an
unknown threat. It is clear that there was technological devel-
opment in the period, especially in producing more eff ective
swords, but we do not have the data to trace the interaction
between changes in technology and the development of new
forms of war making.
Th e importance of chariots in the tablets poses a prob-
lem. Mainland Greece, with its rugged topography, is not well
suited to the use of the chariot, especially in the mass forma-
tions found in the contemporary Near East. It may be, given
some later parallels, that chariots served as elite transport to
the battlefi eld and that their primary function was to display
the high status and importance of their owners. Th e weapons
fi nds and portrayals of fi ghting indicate the importance of
the heavy thrusting spear. Although the sword is found in all
periods, the thrusting spear is found most frequently. Th e use
of such a weapon implies some type of compact formation,
though its organization eludes us.THE DARK AGES
Th e end of the Mycenaean Period in about the middle of the
12th century b.c.e. witnessed profound changes on the Greek
mainland and islands. Th e palaces were destroyed and with
them the writing system used to keep their accounts. Th e
archaeological fi nds paint a picture of a depopulated and
fragmented society based primarily on small villages with a
much reduced economy during the dark ages (ca. 1100–ca.
750 b.c.e.). Most political units centered on a local chief, who
functioned with the support of local nobles. Th e amount of
surplus wealth that such a society could devote to warfare was
small, and it is probable that most of the fi ghting centered on
raiding and small-scale confl ict.
Th e same diffi culties in reconstructing warfare in this
period arise as for the previous one. We have to rely on weap-
ons fi nds, and from about 850 b.c.e. there are vases that showfi ghting. Evidence points to the importance of missile war-
fare, with javelins and an open and fl uid manner of fi ghting.
Chariots are pictured, and there have been occasional fi nds of
chariots in graves dated to aft er 1000 b.c.e. Th ese must have
belonged to the elite, but their function remains unknown.
Based on evidence from the Homeric poems, these armies
must have consisted of relatively small war bands operating
under the leadership of a local chief or prince whose pri-
mary adversaries were small armies of a similar nature. Th ese
formations were too small and lacked the organization to
achieve permanent conquest. Warfare for the most part must
have consisted of raiding and border warfare.THE ARCHAIC PERIOD
Th e warfare of the Iliad and the Odyssey has been a particu-
lar focus of discussion. Th ere has been debate about realism
and the period in which the works are set. It seems that they
refl ect the period towards the end of the dark ages and the be-
ginning of the following period, the Archaic (ca. 600–ca. 480
b.c.e.). Th ey portray a world of small-scale states controlled
by kings and the nobility, where war is the primary means
of enhancing one’s prestige and status. Th e kings and nobles,
such as Achilles and Hector, dominate the combat and dis-
play superhuman strength.
Despite the presence of gods and other fantastic elements,
Homer’s works do present a comprehensible picture of warfare.
Th e poems reveal a style of warfare close to that of the dark
ages. Th e elite lead individual war bands that oft en function
independently. Combat is normally in loose formation and
mostly involves the exchange of missiles. Th is formation re-
sponds to circumstances. Under pressure from the enemy or
in pursuit, it can compact, and battles between closely formed
groups of warriors occur. Th ese masses are important in deter-
mining the course of combat despite the focus on the actions of
the elite. Th e elite function primarily as front fi ghters and oft en
fi ght before the masses of their men, challenging enemy lead-
ers. Th e poems portray their successes as the key to victory.
Th e use of chariots in Homer has evoked further contro-
versy. Th ey are used singly and oft en serve as transport for war-
riors who drive into battle, fi ght dismounted, and then use the
chariots as transport to the rear. Th e movement of these vehi-
cles in and out of the battle has no parallel elsewhere. Chariots
were normally used elsewhere in massed formations as mis-
sile platforms or as transport to the battle but were not used to
fi ght along with the infantry. Although the use of intermingled
chariots and infantry is not impossible, it seems likely that the
poet’s use of chariots for his heroes is the product of an attempt
to emphasize his heroes’ superhuman nature.
From the second half of the eighth century b.c.e. Greece
underwent a profound change. Population increased dramati-
cally, there was extensive colonization around the Mediterra-
nean, external trade resumed, and writing was reintroduced.
Accompanying these developments was the formation of a
new political organization: the city-state. In essence, the city-
state consisted of an urban core based on a defensible citadel
surrounded by public and religious spaces. It served as the1146 war and conquest: Greece0895-1194_Soc&Culturev4(s-z).i1146 1146 10/10/07 2:31:14 PM