the Asiatic model. Other troops wore shirts made of leather
strips sewn together in rows. Armor made of iron lamellae
(thin plates) appeared in the reign of Sheshonk I (r. ca. 945–
ca. 924 b.c.e.).
Th e two-wheeled, horse-drawn chariot was introduced
to Egypt from Asia in the Second Intermediate Period. From
that time onward the chariot signifi cantly contributed to
the art of Egyptian warfare, useful for its mobility and the
element of surprise. It was constructed of wood with some
leather and metal elements, making it a light vehicle on the
battlefi eld. It was manned by two soldiers: the charioteer, who
held a shield, and the chariot-warrior, who was armed with a
bow and a spear. Th e chariot was not armored in any way and
therefore was not suitable for a direct attack. Once the enemy
lines were broken, the chariot was ideally suited for pursuing
and harassing the scattered infantry.THE MIDDLE EAST
BY JAMES A. CORRICK
Th rough the sixth millennium b.c.e. weapons in the ancient
Near East were made from stone and wood. Spears with long
wooden shaft s and arrows made from reeds or wood were
tipped with chipped-fl int heads. Some crude spears and ar-
rows lacked heads, with one end being nothing more than a
fi re-hardened point. Axes with stone blades were also used.
During the fi ft h millennium b.c.e. the fl int and stone heads
of these weapons were oft en replaced by copper, and by 3500
b.c.e. bronze was in use for weapons. Around 1200 b.c.e.
the Hittites were among the fi rst to use iron for armaments.
However, the quality of this iron was not good, and bronze
weapons were still stronger and better made. Good-quality
iron weapons did not become common until aft er 1000 b.c.e.,
with steel—iron hardened by the addition of carbon—ap-
pearing in arms manufacturing aft er 500 b.c.e.
Many of the weapons that became common throughout
the ancient Near East were fi rst used by the armies of Sumer.
By 2500 b.c.e. infantry troops were armed with 5- to 6-foot-
long thrusting spears and lightweight throwing spears, or jav-
elins. Others carried bows with an eff ective range of between
150 and 300 feet. Many also carried daggers, ranging in length
from 6 to 12 inches. Some weapons carried by Sumerian sol-
diers were everyday tools. Hunters brought slings for throwing
stones that could down either game or enemy warriors in bat-
tle. Fishermen brought their nets, using them to entangle their
opponents, whom they then either speared or stabbed. Nets did
not long remain a part of the Near Eastern battle equipment,
but slings would be used by most Near Eastern armies through
the early centuries c.e., although the ammunition would some-
times be clay or lead pellets rather than small stones.
Another important Sumerian weapon was the socket ax.
Th e bronze head of this battle-ax was narrow for better cut-
ting and had a socket that slipped down over the end of the
ax’s wooden handle. A rivet driven through the socket into
the handle held the head in place and allowed the wielderto deliver a strong blow without dislodging the head, as of-
ten happened to axes with heads tied to the haft. Able to cut
through most forms of armor, the socket ax, its head made of
iron during the last centuries b.c.e., would remain one of the
most deadly ancient Near Eastern weapons.
Th e composite bow was the next important advance in
personal weaponry, appearing sometime aft er 2300 b.c.e.
during the Akkadian reign. Until this time bows had been
carved from a single piece of wood. Th e composite, however,
was built by gluing together diff erent types of wood, along
with bone and sinew. Th e resulting bow was stronger and ca-
pable of shooting an arrow twice as far as the older bows. Th e
composite eventually became the bow of choice throughout
the ancient Near East and was still being used by the Persians
of the Sassanian Dynasty (224–651 c.e.).
Both Sumerians and Akkadians carried the sickle-
sword, which had a curved blade much like the sickle used
in harvesting crops. Th e straight-bladed sword eventually
developed from the dagger, and Assyrians began carrying
straight-bladed swords during the fi rst millennium b.c.e., as
later did Persian and other Near Eastern armies. Th e sickle-
sword, however, continued to be used in the ancient Near
East into the early centuries c.e. Its curved blade was de-
signed for slashing at an enemy and was sharpened only on its
outer edge. Th e straight-bladed sword might have either one
edge sharpened for slashing or both edges for thrusting and
stabbing as well as slashing. Long swords, measuring more
than a yard, were found in the arsenals of many Near Eastern
armies, but short swords, normally ranging in length from 2
to 2.5 feet, were more common. Th e Persian infantry of the
Achaemenid Dynasty (550–330 b.c.e.) carried a very short,
straight-bladed sword called an akinakes, which was made of
iron and measured between 14 and 18 inches in length, mak-
ing it not much longer than a dagger; indeed, the diff erence
between a long dagger and a short sword was vague. Sword
blades were oft en leaf-shaped, swelling in the middle and
then tapering at the end. Bronze and iron blades were formed
from a single piece of metal, while steel blades had a core of
iron over which was layered a coat of steel.
Th e primary defenses against all weapons were armor,
helmets, and shields. Sumerian armor was a linen or leather
cloak to which copper or bronze disks were sewn. Th e most
common form of armor in the ancient Near East was that
worn by the Assyrians and later the Achaemenid Persians.
Known as scale armor because it resembled the scales of a fi sh,
this protective gear was made by sewing overlapping small
oblongs of bronze or iron to a shirt of linen or felt. Originally,
among the Assyrians, an armor shirt reached to the knees or
lower, but later it was shortened so that it reached only to the
waist. Th is short armor was also preferred by the Persians,
probably because it allowed for more maneuverability. Th e
sleeves, even on the longest armor shirts, ended well above
the elbow. Sometimes Near Eastern armor was nothing more
than quilted linen, as was the case with some Achaemenid
Persian troops.1164 weaponry and armor: The Middle East0895-1194_Soc&Culturev4(s-z).i1164 1164 10/10/07 2:31:18 PM