Relief carving was used to embellish the interior or exte-
rior of buildings, the surfaces of monuments such as the tri-
umphal arch and tombs, as well as smaller structures such as
altars and sarcophagi (stone containers for the dead body). Re-
lief sculpture could consist of compositions made up of fi gures
and decorative devices of plants, fruit, and other symbols. Th e
Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace, made around 13–9 b.c.e.) of the em-
peror Augustus is an example of the use of fi gural decoration
while depicting a procession of members of the imperial fam-
ily and servants in a stately composition. Th e decoration of
the Arch of Titus (around 81 c.e.) uses relief to commemorate
a signifi cant historical event, the sacking of the Jewish Temple
of Jerusalem and the removal of the temple treasure.
From some of the ancient authors we know that, in ad-
dition to sculpture, painting was an important art form.
Paintings on canvas or on wood panels from Roman times
have seldom been preserved, and this much-respected art has
almost totally disappeared, so this is one instance where we
must turn to the written evidence. Pliny the Elder describes
paintings exhibited in the Roman Forum as well as the un-
usual example of a colossal 120-foot-high painting commis-
sioned by Nero, naturally of himself. Pliny also tells us that
realistic portraits attracted a great deal of interest and caused
considerable discussion and comment.
Some panel paintings found in the dry climate of Egypt
may give us an idea of the Roman painting tradition. When
the Romans occupied Egypt, it became common to put a
painted portrait, rather than a modeled mask, over the face
of a mummy. In these mummy portraits, painted in wax pig-
ments on thin wood panels in a very realistic manner, some
evidence of the painting styles of the Romans during the time
of the Empire has been saved for history.WALL PAINTING
In contrast to the scarcity of original Roman portrait paint-
ing, many examples of paintings on the walls of public build-
ings and private houses have survived. It is important to
remember that this kind of wall painting was intended as a
kind of interior decoration and oft en followed a set formula
or pattern. It generally employed the technique called fresco,
painting on the plaster of a wall when it is still wet or “fresh.”
Th e major advantage of this method is that the painting be-
comes a permanent part of the wall.
Th e subjects of wall painting oft en included views of gar-
dens and vistas of elaborate buildings, creating the illusion
that the room was open to pleasant scenery. Roman houses
had few real windows, and wall images of this kind helped
to lessen the feeling of confi ned spaces. Th e greater part ofIn almost every museum that has a collection of Greek sculpture many of the labels will say “Roman copy after a
Greek original.” As Rome grew powerful in the Mediterranean world, the ruling classes aspired to become cultured
and knowledgeable about art, literature, and the other aspects of a civilized people. This cultural ambition resulted
in an admiration of Greek art, particularly the art of the fi fth century B.C.E., and led to the serious collecting of Greek
art on a grand scale.
The Romans had several ways to satisfy the demand for sculpture to decorate the houses and villas of the well-
to-do. First, actual Greek works, purchased or looted, were exported to Rome literally by the boatload. Underwater
archaeologists have found countless examples in the sea as well as in the port of Athens, where the artworks were
lost in the process of being shipped. Second, Greek sculptors were brought to Rome, either as slaves or as free opera-
tives, to produce their sculpture locally. Third, copies of famous works by artists of great reputation were ordered and
produced for the Roman market by the thousands.
Greek artists such as Phidias, Polyclitus, and Praxiteles were famous in their time, and individual works by them
were well known throughout the Greco-Roman world. Since these works usually stood in temples or public places, it
was impossible to acquire the originals, but copies were considered a good substitute.
Most of the famous pieces of sculpture were cast in bronze, and only a few have survived. Most of the copies for
the Roman art trade were carved from marble. The difference in material necessitated small changes in the compo-
sition. A bronze statue could stand securely on its own legs with little chance of breaking, but stone copies needed
additional support around the legs. This fact helps to explain much of the drapery, tree stumps, small animals, and
other additions found in the Roman copies. Copyists took other liberties as well. If the original was considered too
revealing of the female form, a more modest arrangement of the draperies might be employed. To fi t in with a par-
ticular placement or arrangement, the whole composition might be reversed so that the fi gure gestured with the left
hand instead of the right. Copies could also be made in different sizes. The Roman collector could choose the size
best suited for his house or garden.
We have knowledge of many famous works of art only from the copies commissioned by Roman collectors. In
some cases there are dozens of examples based on the same well-known original that was destroyed or lost long ago.ROMAN COPIES OF GREEK ORIGINALS
art: Rome 115