EGYPT
BY KELLY-ANNE DIAMOND REED
Egypt is located in the northeast corner of the African con-
tinent, its nearest modern neighbors being Libya to the west,
Sudan to the south, and Israel to the northeast. Th e Gulf of
Aqaba and the Red Sea lie to the east, and the Mediterranean
Sea is to the north. Th e country occupies 386,650 square
miles and is the 12th-largest country in Africa. Th e modern
border between Egypt and Sudan lies just north of the second
cataract of the Nile River. In the Predynastic Period (5000–
3100 b.c.e.) or Early Dynastic Period (ca. 3000–2575 b.c.e.)
the border lay at Gebel el-Silsila, where the limestone banks
in the north give way to sandstone in the south. For most of
antiquity the border lay at the fi rst cataract, though on vari-
ous occasions the Egyptians pushed farther south to expand
their territory. In the New Kingdom (1550–1070 b.c.e.) the
southern border of Egypt reached past the fourth cataract.
LANDSCAPE AND CLIMATE
Th e habitation of the Nile Valley began in Paleolithic times.
By 15,000 b.c.e. there were many Paleolithic sites in the desert
near the valley edge. In the Neolithic Period (ca. 5500–5000
b.c.e.) more people entered Egypt to enjoy the wild game, wa-
ter, and pleasant climate. Th ese people were wanderers and
gatherers, not food producers. Some fruits, seeds, and roots
could be found in the wild. Th e fi rst settlements appeared
around 5000 b.c.e.; the settlers could not go far from the wa-
ter supply and settled near the Nile and in the Faiyûm, a large,
fertile depression in Libyan Desert. It is generally thought
that over time there was a gradual lack of rainfall and an in-
crease in desert, which in the end led to a scarcity of game. In
Neolithic times there was greater movement of people west of
the Nile, especially in the north. It is quite likely that it was
agriculture that anchored them there. Irrigation began only
aft er the population could no longer survive on the food of
the naturally inundated land.
Th e Egyptian landscape can be broken up into two main
parts: the delta in the north and the Nile Valley in the south.
Th e Nile River was, and still is, the heart of Egypt. Without
this river Egyptian civilization might never have developed
in the dry desert climate of northeast Africa. Th e Nile Val-
ley and the Nile Delta are known as Upper Egypt and Lower
Egypt, respectively. Th e term Middle Egypt is also sometimes
employed to describe the region between the Faiyûm in the
north to the modern city of Asyut in the south. Upper and
Lower Egypt are two very distinct regions, both geographi-
cally and culturally. Th e delta and the valley cover approxi-
mately 13,000 square miles. Th e majority of the ancient
Egyptian population lived in this region.
Th e Egyptian climate is hot and arid. In Cairo (ancient
Memphis) the summer can reach temperatures as high as 95
degrees Fahrenheit and then as low as 45 degrees Fahrenheit
in the winter. Th e climate is hotter the farther south one goes.
In Aswān the temperature can rise as high as 107 degrees
Fahrenheit in the summer. Th ere is rarely rain or even clouds
in Egypt and hardly any rainfall in the Nile Valley; in the del-
ta there can be from 4 to 8 inches of rainfall per year. Th e city
of Cairo averages fi ve rainy days per year, usually between
November and January. Because of this lack of rainfall the
ancient Egyptians were entirely dependent on the Nile inun-
dation for the survival of their crops.
Measuring 4,189 miles, the Nile is the longest river in the
world. It fl ows from south to north and empties into the Med-
iterranean Sea. In the south the Nile is formed by the confl u-
ence of the White Nile (the parent stream), the Blue Nile near
Khartoum, and the Atbara some 200 miles north. Th e White
Nile originates in Lake Victoria, and the Blue Nile originates
in the mountainous region of northern Ethiopia, the Ethio-
pian Highlands. Th e Nile proper then hits the Mediterranean
Sea some 1,700 miles away.
Just north of Khartoum the Nile is interrupted by the
sixth cataract, the fi rst of a series of six. A cataract is a rocky
outcrop that produces rapids when the water runs over it.
Th e fi ft h cataract is located in the Bayuda Desert, north of
where the Atbara merges with the Nile. Th e fourth cataract
is found near Gebel Barkal. Th e third cataract is just north
of Kerma. Th e second cataract is found near the ancient site
of Buhen. Th e fi rst cataract marked the ancient boundary
between Egypt and Nubia, located just south of the island
of Elephantine.NUBIA
Th e geography of Nubia is important for understanding an-
cient Egyptian culture. Aside from the fact that this territory
was oft en dominated by the Egyptians, the natural resources
that the Egyptians took from Nubia enriched their kingdom
and gave them various means with which to prosper. Th e
name Nubia is derived from the word nwb, meaning gold. Be-
tween the fi rst and second cataracts was Lower Nubia. Th is
was a relatively poor region with very little cultivable land,
since the desert cliff s oft en came right to the river’s edge.
Lower Nubia was repeatedly being absorbed into the ancient
Egyptian territory. Th e ancient Egyptians regarded Nubia
as rightfully theirs and exploited it for its natural resources,
used it as a corridor to retrieve exotic African goods, and re-
cruited men for the Egyptian army and police force.
Th e Egyptians had penetrated into this southern land as
early as the Early Dynastic Period, as evidenced by the rock
inscriptions and reliefs located in the area of the second cata-
ract. During the Old Kingdom (ca. 2575–2134 b.c.e.) King
Snefru brought back to Egypt 7,000 Nubian captives and
200,000 head of cattle, according to the Palermo stone, which
records events from the fi rst fi ve dynasties. Additionally, the
Egyptians built a fortress at Buhen, which may be interpreted
as their having control over the region. During the First In-
termediate Period (ca. 2134–2040 b.c.e.) the Egyptians lost
hegemony over the area, despite the fact that there were very
few settled people. Th ey regained control of the area in the
Middle Kingdom (ca. 2040–1640 b.c.e.) and erected a seriesclimate and geography: Egypt 239