Th e proximity of the Near East to Egypt’s northeastern
border also played a primary role in the development and
evolution of Egyptian culture. Connections between these
two regions were established as early as the Predynastic Pe-
riod. Evidence of trade in the Old Kingdom can be seen in the
Lebanese cedar used to make King Khufu’s (r. ca. 2551–2528
b.c.e.) boat. In the Middle Kingdom the Egyptians traded
with the Near East, mainly through the port of Byblos located
on the Mediterranean coast, north of modern Beirut. Offi cial
Egyptian seals have been found in Israel, Syria, and Turkey.
Royally sponsored trade activities reached as far as Ugarit in
the north, and objects from Minoan Crete have been found in
Egypt. Local trade took place between the people of the east-
ern delta and those living in the region that is now southern
Israel. Similarities existed in the material cultures of these
two populations. In the New Kingdom the Egyptian military
held parts of the Near East for over 200 years; this situation
was repeated in the later periods.
NATURAL RESOURCES
Th e natural resources that were available to the Egyptians in
antiquity are quite impressive. Th e northern part of the Nile
Valley is made up of limestone; beginning in Gebel el-Silsila
the sandstone comes down on both sides of the Nile and re-
places the limestone all the way into Sudan. Limestone is a
soft er stone, and the Nile has been able to carve some of it
away, thus creating a broader fl oodplain in the north. Such is
not the case with the sandstone in the south. Th e Egyptians
used both limestone and sandstone for construction. Th ere
were many resource sites within easy reach. Schist could be
found between Qena and Quseir, quartzite came from Gebel
Ahmar, alabaster came from Hatnub, and granite was quar-
ried at Aswān. Although some of the resources were nearby,
others required large-scale expeditions, such as greywacke
in the Wadi Hammamat and gold in the Nubian mines. Th e
Egyptians also mined copper, turquoise, malachite, and ame-
thyst in the eastern desert and the Sinai. Th ere is no evidence
that the Egyptians themselves conducted the mining opera-
tions in the Sinai; they most likely had a local crew working
for them.
Th e Wadi Natrun in the western desert was the source of
natron, which was used for mummifi cation and purifi cation
rituals. Above all Egypt acquired a wealth of gold through its
mining activities along the Nile in Nubia and in Nubia’s east-Th e Great Temple at Abu Simbel on the banks of the Nile; the Nile is the heart of Egypt and without it Egyptian civilization may never have devel-
oped in the dry desert climate of northeast Africa. (Courtesy of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago)
climate and geography: Egypt 243