Th e Appalachian Mountains stretch from what is now
eastern Canada down to northern Georgia. Th ey are fairly
low, gentle mountains and in ancient times were heavily for-
ested with many diff erent species of trees. Th ey also had a
large population of wild animals, both carnivores and herbi-
vores. Th ey form a physical barrier between the eastern and
western portions of the region; walking through them was
diffi cult, though by no means impossible. Th e highest moun-
tain in the chain is Mount Mitchell in North Carolina. Th e
higher elevations have colder temperatures than the lowlands
to the east and west.
Th e southern coast of what is now the United States lies
along the Gulf of Mexico. Th is region has fertile soil and
warm temperatures, though it has always been prone to hur-
ricanes in the late summer and autumn. In fact, researchers
have found that hurricanes struck the Gulf Coast much more
frequently between 1500 b.c.e. and 1000 c.e. than they do to-
day. Th e region was heavily forested in ancient times, and the
forests were full of wild game animals. Th e Gulf of Mexico
itself supported many fi sh and shellfi sh. Th e gulf has gentler
tidal patterns than the larger oceans and is more easily navi-
gated in small boats.
CARIBBEAN
Th e Caribbean region lies to the southeast of North America
and north of modern Venezuela in South America. It consists
of an arc of islands that run from the Bahamas and Cuba in
the northwest to Trinidad and Tobago in the southeast. Th e
only way to travel from island to island in ancient times was
by boat. People who lived on the islands tended to be very iso-
lated from other cultures. It appears that humans colonized
the Caribbean from South America and moved northward.
Th e fi rst evidence of humans on the islands was found in
Tri nidad, just off the coast of Venezuela, and dated to about
5000 b.c.e. Th e journey from the mainland to Trinidad would
have been very short, unlike the voyages to more distant is-
lands, which would have required sailors to leave sight of land
and navigate ocean waters.
The Bahamas are low, f lat islands in shallow water.
Most of the other islands of the Caribbean have more vari-
ation in elevation. Modern Cuba and Hispaniola contain
a mix of hills and f lat plains. Puerto Rico and Jamaica are
hilly, as are most of the islands in the Lesser Antilles, the
chain of islands forming the eastern boundary of the Ca-
ribbean chain. Many of these islands are volcanic in ori-
gin, and some of them contain volcanoes that are active to
this day. Eruptions and earthquakes were common occur-
rences in ancient times.
Th e Caribbean climate ranges from subtropical in the
Bahamas to tropical in the southernmost reaches. Th e islands
supported lush vegetation and thick forests that were home
to many species of animals, including some unusually small
birds and snakes and other animals unique to the islands.
Th e oceans around the islands teemed with fi sh and shellfi sh.
Coral reefs lay just off shore of most Caribbean islands, at-
tracting fi sh and other marine life to their rich habitats. Hur-
ricanes presented one of the greatest risks to people living in
the islands. A hurricane could completely destroy towns and
kill thousands of people in a single day.MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA
Mexico and Central America were home to several large civi-
lizations. Th e Olmec lived on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico
between 1500 b.c.e. and 400 c.e. Th e city of Teotihuacán,
near modern Mexico City, was inhabited from 150 b.c.e. to
750 c.e. Th e Mayan Empire encompassed parts of what are
now Guatemala, Mexico, Honduras, and Belize, and lasted
from about 1800 b.c.e. to the 17th century c.e. All of these
civilizations supported themselves by farming, and all wor-
shipped rain gods, a sign that they were preoccupied with re-
ceiving enough rain to nourish their crops.
Modern Mexico lies south of the main North American
continent. Two-thirds of Mexico is mountainous. Th e Sier-
ra Madre Occidental and the Sierra Madre Oriental are the
main ranges; they run north to south and have an average el-
evation of 10,000 feet. Th ey were formed by volcanic activity,
and many of them were active in ancient times. Th e Pacifi c
Ocean lies to the west and the Gulf of Mexico to the east of
Mexico.
Mexico’s climate varies depending on altitude, lati-
tude, and distance from the ocean. Warm areas, including
the coastal zones, southern Mexico, and the Yucatán, have
mean temperatures of about 80 degrees Fahrenheit, though
they can reach 120 degrees Fahrenheit. Th e central region has
mean temperatures of about 60 degrees Fahrenheit. Rainfall
is low throughout Mexico except in the southern Gulf Coast
area (modern Tabasco). El Niño activities aff ect weather pat-
terns on the Pacifi c coast, and hurricanes sometimes batter
the Gulf Coast. In ancient times about two-thirds of Mexico
was covered with forests; numerous types of plants and ani-
mals lived there in various ecosystems.
Central Mexico is covered with rolling hills and valleys;
the soil in the valleys is generally much more fertile than that
on the hillsides. Many of the hills are former volcanic cones.
Mexico City, the former Aztec capital, is located in the south-
ern part of this area. A wide coastal plain lies along most of
Mexico’s eastern coast. Th e Yucatán peninsula juts north into
the ocean between the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean
Sea. Th e Yucatán is very hilly. It lacks major rivers. In ancient
times this region was covered with seasonal tropical forests;
it received rain between May and October but also experi-
enced some dry times in the spring. Th e region experienced
periodic droughts when little rain fell for many years; these
droughts seem to have occurred every 200 years or so. No
major rivers supplied water to the region, so the Maya had to
depend on rain.
Th e Yucatán has ample freshwater underground, but
this is not always accessible to humans. Much of the Yuca-266 climate and geography: The Americas