for ordinary people at work, but it was also used as an under-
garment for occasions outside of work.
Perhaps the earliest garment known from India is the
sari, which was in use by 3000 b.c.e. It is a piece of cloth about
10 feet in length that is wrapped around the body in various
patterns. As fashion dictated, it could be tight or loose, and
it could be wound in elegant patterns for special occasions or
wound loosely to give freedom of movement for work. It was
made either from cotton or silk and was worn primarily by
women. Also ancient is the uttariya, worn by both men and
women. Perhaps as old as the sari, the uttariya was a scarf
used to cover the upper body and could be made from bark,
hides, or silk, though it was usually cotton.
Somewhat later the lungi developed. Th is cloth, worn by
both men and women, was wrapped around the waist and
tucked in, resulting in a skirt that stopped above the knee
for work and at the ankle for formal occasions. It was usually
made of cotton but was sometimes silk and more rarely wool.
Similar to the lungi was the dhoti, which probably developed
before 1000 b.c.e. Wrapped similarly to the lungi, the dhoti
looked more like loose, short trousers that ended above the
knee and was worn by both men and women. Th ese garments
were typically worn alone, with women generally remaining
bare-breasted in everyday life until the Muslim invasion.
For warmth Indians oft en wore the chadar, which pre-
dates 200 c.e. and is still worn in modern times. It was used
mostly in northern India and was made of heavy cloth, usu-
ally cotton, about 10 feet long and 3 feet wide and acted as a
blanket or shawl that could give the upper body protection
from the cold. Another somewhat heavy garment was the
purdah, imported from Assyria in about 1000 b.c.e. It was
adopted in some Hindu communities and was worn only by
women, covering their entire bodies and restricting their
movements. It was intended to symbolize the loss of all social
rights of women by making them nonentities.
By and large the Indians preferred freedom of movement
and color in their clothing, and they preferred the same for
their feet. Th ey began wearing jewelry on their feet before
2500 b.c.e. but tended to be barefoot. In the fi rst century c.e.,
khapusa were invented. Th ey were knee-high boots worn
in the mountains of northern India as protection from the
cold, and they were probably a style imported from nomads
in central Asia. Th ey tended to be made of animal hide and
were decorated in colorful patterns. In the 200s c.e. chappals
became common. Th ese were sandals made of animal hide,
with straps over the big toe and the upper foot.
EUROPE
BY AMY HACKNEY BLACKWELL
Clothing in ancient Europe was simply made and functional.
Sewing and tailoring techniques were not advanced, and most
people made their own clothing. Most people across Europe
dressed in simple tunics and untailored cloaks that varied in
design according to regional climate. Few ancient people had
extensive wardrobes; many of them had one set of clothing
and wore it day aft er day for months or years.
One of the earliest examples of European clothing is that
worn by the well-preserved frozen body of a man found in
1991 in the Alps. It was estimated that the man had died be-
fore 3000 b.c.e. His entire ensemble was perfectly designed
for keeping a person warm in the Alpine climate. It contained
no cloth at all, possibly because Europeans at that time did
not make cloth. Th e man wore deerskin moccasins attached
to wooden frames that probably functioned as snowshoes.
Historians believe that the man may have stuff ed hay into the
shoes as insulation. Above the shoes, fur leggings were tied
with leather thongs. Th e man wore a loincloth made of goat
hide sewn into shape and fastened around the waist with a
belt. On his chest he wore a knee-length shirt made of goat
hide that may or may not have had sleeves. Over his shoulders
he wore a cloak woven of grass. His hat was made of brown
bear skin and tied under the chin.
As they began to raise sheep and settle down in villages,
people perfected techniques of making thread and weaving
cloth. Most Celtic and German clothing was made of wool.
Sheep thrived in the European climate, and Celtic people
kept herds of them for meat, milk, and wool. Th e Celts also
made clothing of linen, much of which was imported from
regions to the south. Europeans occasionally used silk thread
to embroider their garments with patterns such as meanders
or swastikas (a symbol that had no racist meaning in ancient
times). Th e silk probably came from China, and people may
have unraveled old silk garments to use the thread. Th e Celts
who lived in Hallstatt, near Salzburg, Austria, between 1200
and 500 b.c.e. practiced advanced weaving techniques. Th ey
wove cloth in various patterns, including stripes, checks, and
twills. Archaeologists have found stamps that people may
have used to decorate their clothing with dye.
By the time of the Roman Republic (510–27 b.c.e.) most
Europeans were wearing cloth garments, with leather and fur
pieces sometimes being added for warmth. Few ancient Celtic
or German garments have survived. Th e Romans, however,
spent centuries fi ghting with and then living with Celts and
Germans, and they wrote detailed descriptions of their cloth-
ing. One of the fi rst things Romans noticed about Gauls was
that they dressed in brightly colored patterned or checked
cloth. Th ese patterns were known as plaids, or tartans. Th e
Celts and Germans were experts at dying their woolen thread
with natural dyes made from plants. Th ey used plants such as
madder to make red dye, weld to make yellow, and woad to
make blue. Th e people wove threads into patterns that looked
just like modern Scottish tartans. Diff erent tribes became
identifi ed with particular patterns. Linen does not take dye
well, so most linen remained its natural light color.
Most ancient European garments required minimal sew-
ing. Cloaks were oft en not sewn at all but were worn as lengths
of cloth straight off the loom. Celts and Germans shaped
sleeves and made trousers, but they also made simple tunics
that required only a piece of cloth, pins at the shoulders, and278 clothing and footwear: Europe