with a pattern or embroidered. Th e woven patterns and em-
broidery were not simply ornamental but told important facts
about the wearer, such as social status and family lineage.
Weaving was an important cultural tradition in the Andes
that fl ourishes in modern times. Th e weavers are known for
their skill in creating complex, oft en abstract designs that re-
quire intensive planning and labor. Th e tradition of Andean
weaving and embroidery began with the early civilizations.
Also found in ruler burials were ponchos, large pieces of
cloth with slits cut into them so that the garments could fi t
over the head. An elaboration on the poncho was the tunic,
which was sewn up the sides. Skirts were of the wraparound
style and oft en were embroidered. Some people of the Paracas
era wore rectangular loincloths with two ties pulled between
the legs and fastened around the waist. Excavated examples
of loincloths were not decorated except for the border.
Little is known about clothing and footwear in ancient
North America.
See also adornment; art; children; climate and geog-
raphy; death and burial practices; foreigners and
barbarians; gender structures and roles; military;
nomadic and pastoral societies; occupations; religion
and cosmology; slaves and slavery; social organiza-
tion; sports and recreation; textiles and needlework;
towns and villages; trade and exchange; weaponry
and armor.
FURTHER READING
Francois Boucher, 20,000 Years of Fashion: Th e History of Costume
and Personal Adornment (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987).
Th omas Hope, Costumes of the Greeks and Romans (New York: Do-
ver, 1962).
Mary G. Houston, Ancient Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Costume
and Decoration (London: A and C Black, 1931).
Sara Pendergast and Tom Pendergast, Fashion, Costume, and Cul-
ture: Clothing, Headwear, Body Decorations, and Footwear
through the Ages (Detroit: Th omson Gale, 2004).
Judith Lynn Sebesta and Larissa Bonfante, eds., Th e World of Roman
Costume (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994).
Marion Sichel, Costume of the Ancient World (London: Batsford
Academic and Educational, 1980).
Phyllis G. Tortora and Keith Eubank, Survey of Historic Costume:
A History of Western Dress (New York: Fairchild Publications,
1994).
Anne Paul, Paracas Ritual Attire (Norman: University of Oklahoma
Press, 1990).
▶ crafts
introduction
When archaeologists study ancient sites, including the re-
mains of villages and individual homes, one of the things
they look for is evidence of occupational activity. In par-
ticular, they look for the remains of tools and materials that
might have been used in the production of craft s. Among the
materials can be precious metals, other metals (such as cop-
per, iron, and lead), semiprecious stones, glass, ceramics, and
stone shards, as well as tools used for cutting, carving, grind-
ing, sanding, polishing, and the like. Any of these materials
can provide evidence that a family or group of people were
involved in the production of craft s.
Th e earliest humans were highly dependent on the craft s
items they could make themselves with whatever materials
were at hand, typically wood, stone, shells, bones, antlers and
horns, and the like. Most of these craft s would have served
entirely practical purposes. Examples include arrow and
spear points for use in hunting, pottery to hold water and
food, primitive cooking utensils, and similar items. Occa-
sionally, too, archaeologists fi nd carved items that may have
had religious signifi cance, including amulets (or charms),
small statues, and other objects to which their owners might
have attached spiritual signifi cance.
As human civilization advanced, the production of craft s
progressed as well. While the earliest humans had to be gen-
eralists in the production of craft s, producing anything they
needed to make their lives more livable, people in later eras
began to specialize in craft s production, creating objects that
were not only useful but beautiful as well. Th ey typically
passed their skills down to their descendants, who contin-
ued the family tradition of craft s production. Some of these
specializations would have included metalworking (includ-
ing coin making), woodworking, glassmaking, stonework,
the production of fabrics, and so on. Even such persons as
brewers and vintners (winemakers) could be considered
craft s workers. Some of these craft spersons would have been
involved in the building trades. Some, for example, became
experts in thatching roofs, while others became stonemasons
who carved ornamental stonework for public buildings and
monuments. Others would have focused on metalworking for
farming, producing implements for plowing and harvesting,
or they might have specialized in pots, bowls, cups, and other
household items.
Still other craft s workers devoted their attentions to
jewelry and other items used for personal adornment. Some
worked with metals, including both precious metals like gold
and silver and ordinary metals like copper and iron. Others
learned to make glass objects, turning glass into beads, amu-
lets, and other objects. In ancient Egypt, for example, many
people were skilled in the production of faience, a glasslike
material that consisted of a paste made of quartz crystals that
was then glazed. Faience was used in a variety of applications,
including not only jewelry, pots, and bowls but also walls and
fl oor tiles. Among Native Americans, beadwork and leather
craft s were particularly important.
Th e expansion of trade opened new opportunities for
craft s workers. Th ey were no longer limited to materials they
could fi nd locally. Particularly as trade to the Far East and
Africa grew, craft s workers in Europe, the Middle East, and284 clothing and footwear: further reading