Little is known of the craft s of the Asian islands and
Oceania prior to 500 c.e., when Japanese metalwork becomes
common. Knowledge of metalworking was carried by Kore-
ans to the Japanese Islands, perhaps in the 200s c.e., when the
Japanese still used stone for most objects, even swords. Basket
weaving was quite likely important throughout southeastern
Asia and the islands, but almost nothing is known about the
weavers or their products.
EUROPE
BY MICHAEL J. O’NEAL
Compared with the ancient empires of Greece, Persia, and
Mesopotamia, Europe remained relatively undeveloped until
the arrival of the Roman Empire in the fi rst century b.c.e. and,
later, the advent of Christianity. At the dawn of history much
of Europe was covered with ice, so the population was sparse
at best. Only aft er the ice receded in about 8000 b.c.e. did
people move into the region, where they found fertile ground
for crops and an abundance of game. Th ey survived purely by
means of what they could raise and grow for their own use,
settling in widely separated hamlets that consisted of low huts
and barns for their livestock. Th ere the ancient Europeans de-
veloped craft s that made their lives at least slightly more com-
fortable. Because the passage of time is kinder to stone than it
is to other, less-durable materials, the archaeological record
consists largely of examples showing that the ancient Europe-
ans worked with stone to form such objects as tools (primarily
for cutting), arrowheads, and spear points as well as pottery
for food and water storage. Less commonly found are exam-
ples of craft items made of ivory, bone, and wood.
In discussions of ancient European peoples the terms
Celt and Celtic are oft en used. In modern life these terms
typically refer to the people of Ireland, but historians use the
words more generally to refer to the peoples who migrated
into Europe, probably about 3000 b.c.e., from the steppes of
central Russia. Early on they settled in Hungary and Roma-
nia, but in time they moved on to Italy, France, Switzerland,
Germany, the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal), the
Balkans, and Poland. Later still, they settled the British Isles.
For centuries the Celts were the dominant people of the Eu-
ropean continent.
Th e ancient Romans regarded the Celtic peoples to the
north as crude “barbarians.” Th e Roman writer Polybius
wrote, “Th eir lives were very simple, and they had no knowl-
edge whatsoever of any art or science.” In fact, the Celts devel-
oped a great deal of sophisticated technology, including craft s
production. Th ey became especially adept at metalwork, and
one of their major achievements was the substitution of the
more durable iron for bronze. Th e ancient Celts invented such
items as chain-mail body armor, the plowshare (that is, the
plow’s blade), handsaws, and chisels, and they were the fi rst
people to put iron shoes on horses. Tombs found throughout
southern and eastern Europe contain large numbers of craft
items, including cups, bowls, jewelry, helmets, horse gear, and
the like. Th e famous Agris helmet, found in western France
in 1980, is a magnifi cent piece made of iron with gold plating,
silver rivets, and decorative stripes, along with inlay made of
coral. Th e ancient Celts were also skilled at leatherwork.
Archaeologists refer to two periods of Celtic dominance
on the Continent. Th e fi rst is the Hallstatt Period (1200–500
b.c.e.), referring to a small town not far from Salzburg, Aus-
tria, which is still the site of huge salt mines. Th e remains of a
great many craft items have been found in the region, most of
it relatively unsophisticated metalwork. Th e other period was
the La Tène, named aft er a metalworking site in Switzerland.
Th e La Tène began in 480 b.c.e. and lasted until the Romans
entered the picture in about 1 c.e., and historians regard it
as important because of the fl owering of craft smanship and
technology in the region at this time. One of the distinguish-
ing characteristics of the La Tène culture was the use of a great
deal of ornamentation and decoration on craft work, particu-
larly metal. Much of this ornamentation was based on plant
and animal forms, though a lot consisted of purely geometric
designs; it is believed that La Tène craft smen used geometric
compasses to inscribe decorative elements on their work. In
addition to iron the La Tène craft smen worked extensively
with gold and, to a lesser extent, silver.
Art historians identify three distinct styles of La Tène
craft work. One they refer to as the vegetal style, referring to
the use of decorative plant motifs. Th e second is the sword
style, referring to sharply geometric designs inscribed on
such items as sword scabbards. Th e third is the plastic style,
referring to the three-dimensional depiction of objects, pri-
marily on jewelry. Th e La Tène craft smen were skilled not
only at metalworking but also at “fi red” craft s, that is, those
that used fi re in the making, such as inlay work, enameling,
glass, and pottery. Finally, some examples of woodwork sur-
vive. Unused timbers of up to 40 feet long have been found,
along with a variety of woodworking tools, including lathes,
adzes, and saws. La Tène woodworkers produced wooden
bowls and turned tool handles on lathes, but their most note-
worthy achievement was the construction of ships and land
vehicles. An important craft was that of the wheelwright, who
constructed wheels made of wood that were then bound by
iron “tires.” La Tène wheels were more soundly constructed
and durable than any wheels the Roman Empire ever pro-
duced for its famous chariots.
Th e Celts were not the only cultural and linguistic group
to occupy Europe. In addition, various Germanic tribes dom-
inated Scandinavia and northern Germany, including the
Angles, Vandals, Burgundians, Danes, Norwegians, Goths,
and Saxons. Th e development of craft s among these German-
ic tribes in many respects paralleled that of the Celts. During
the Bronze Age (2800–700 b.c.e.) the early Germanic tribes
worked primarily with bronze, but later these tribes worked
with iron. Archaeological fi ndings include pots and bowls,
tools, and various ornamental items.
In the late centuries before the beginning of the
Common Era, the Celts lost power on the Continent. Incrafts: Europe 291