cent fi nd in northwest Botswana has pushed this date back
some 30,000 years. Th ere, archaeologists discovered a kind
of cave that was carved into the rock by ancient Bushmen.
Th e cave, along with the surrounding rock face, is a remark-
able artistic achievement, for it depicts a python, refl ecting
the ancient Bushmen’s creation myth that said that humans
descended from pythons and that stream and riverbeds were
made as the python crawled around in search of water. Th e
cave, then, was a religious site, but the distinction between
religious observance and theater among ancient Africans was
no doubt one that they would not have recognized. Archae-
ologists speculate that as people visited the cave, the shaman
would have retired into a secret chamber, where he could see
the visitors. He then could have spoken to people, making it
seem as though the words came from the mouth of the py-
thon. Two small shaft s would have allowed the shaman to dis-
appear. Th us, if archaeologists are correct, the cave took on
elements of performance and theater, giving visitors a visual
representation of the culture’s creation myth. Numerous sa-
cred sites such as this can be found throughout Africa. While
their primary purpose was religious, the enactment of that
religion was distinctly a form of theater.
Seasonal festivals, too, were an occasion for theatrical
and ritualistic performance. Ancient Africans’ lives were
dependent on the cycles and changes of the natural world.
Again, because religion imbued every aspect of their lives,
ancient Africans would have seen the arrival of a harvest as
an important event, a sign that the gods favored them. Th e
modern Christmas-season festival called Kwanzaa has its
roots in these types of ancient celebrations. Kwanzaa, con-
trary to widespread belief, is not a replacement for Christmas
but rather a harvest festival. Th e rituals of renewal that sur-
round Kwanzaa have their roots in ancient African harvest
celebrations.
EGYPT
BY EMILY JANE O’DELL
Whether ancient Egypt even had a distinct dramatic form and
style has been debated for many years. Egypt provides noth-
ing in any way comparable to the archaeological and textual
evidence we possess for the drama and theater of the Greeks.
Th ere are no known theatrical structures or play scripts writ-
ten with the sole intention of secular entertainment. In fact,
there are no dramatic scripts at all, unless one considers cer-
tain religious rituals and religious texts as blueprints for re-
ligious drama.
Neither the literature nor the tomb reliefs of ancient
Egypt make any reference to the acting or theatrical profes-
sion. Since it was customary to inscribe the title or profession
of a tomb ’s ow ner, t he lac k of e v idenc e for a n ac t i ng profe s sion
is notable and supports its nonexistence. Ancient Egypt did,
however, have a rich oral tradition, and many of the myths
and much of the literature were passed down orally from
generation to generation. We do not know exactly how these
performances and recitations of texts were organized, but it
is probable that they involved a dramatic street performance
of sorts. One Egyptian story in particular, “Th e Contendings
of Horus and Seth,” thought to have been written during the
New Kingdom (1550–1070 b.c.e.), reads very much like a play
because of its quick changes from scene to scene and because
the many diff erent characters speak to each other in a way
that is highly reminiscent of play dialogue.
Th e question of ancient Egyptian drama’s existence is
complicated by how we defi ne drama. Drama can take many
diff erent forms, and theatrical styles are determined and
shaped by the culture, ritual, religion, language, and ceremo-
nies from which they emerge. Th us it can be very diffi cult to
say what constituted or did not constitute drama in one cul-
ture or another. For example, some scholars focus on religious
ritual as performance. Ancient Egyptian culture was heavily
steeped in religious ritual; mythology and religious beliefsBronze fi gure of Isis and Horus, from North Saqqara, Egypt, Late
Period, aft er 600 b.c.e.; Egyptian dramas oft en focused on the gods
and were more like morality plays; two feature Isis and Horus,
respectively. (© Th e Trustees of the British Museum)drama and theater: Egypt 329