(r. 69–79 c.e.) even imposed a tax on Rome’s urinals, since
urine was sold to fullers for use in the washing of clothes. Th e
government and its magistrates could also simply requisition
both supplies and labor from Roman subjects. A provincial
governor, for example, could demand food from local com-
munities for himself and his staff or require cities to build
roads or ships. Th is power was frequently abused, but it was
diffi cult for provincials successfully to prosecute Roman of-
fi cials. Victorious generals could also demand “gift s” of gold
bullion from provincial cities.
Spoils taken in war oft en formed a substantial part of the
state’s revenues. Some of the spoils usually went to the sol-
diers involved in the campaign or fi nanced the construction
of a monument (usually a temple) commemorating the vic-
tory and thanking a particular god or goddess for assistance,
but the rest went into the Roman aerarium (treasury). Th e
spoils of war oft en included gold and silver coins and bullion
as well as prisoners (who would be sold into slavery), live-
stock, and valuable works of art. It was customary for Roman
generals to display some of this plundered wealth in their tri-
umphs (victory parades held at Rome upon the conclusion of
particularly successful military campaigns).
So much booty was acquired following the defeat of Per-
seus in the Th ird Macedonian War that the tributum was
abolished for Italy in 167 b.c.e. Th e most notorious example
of plundering in Roman history came at the end of this same
confl ict. Th e Senate decided to punish about 70 communi-
ties in Epirus (a region to the northwest of Greece along the
east coast of the Ionian Sea), which had sided with Perseus.
Soldiers went to the towns (which had already surrendered),
collected all the gold, silver, and other valuable goods, and
then enslaved the inhabitants. As many as 150,000 people
were led into slavery. Proceeds from the sale of the goods
and people paid for bonuses for the soldiers who had served
in the war.
Th e expansion of the empire also brought considerable
amounts of land under the control of the Roman authorities.
Some of this land was redistributed to veterans or colonists,
but much of it was retained and designated public land (ager
publicus). Most such land would be used for farming or graz-
ing herds, but mines and saltworks could also be public prop-
erty and thus be subject to various forms of rent. During the
republic disputes over the distribution and use of such land
frequently arose and could lead to political turmoil. For ex-
ample, Tiberius Gracchus’s proposal in 133 b.c.e. to enforce
statutory limits on individual holdings of ager publicus met
with considerable resistance from those in possession of large
tracts of such land.
Fines also generated some revenue for Rome. Th e Augus-
tan historian Livy reports that in 193 b.c.e. the aediles Mar-
cus Aemilius Lepidus and Lucius Aemilius Paulus received
so much money from fi nes levied against grazers that they
were able to build a portico and wharf at Rome in addition to
placing gilded shields on the temple of Jupiter. In 189 b.c.e.
aediles (public offi cials in charge of public works and grain)
again used money from fi nes, this time exacted from mer-
chants convicted of hoarding grain, to erect gilded shields
and statues commemorating their actions on behalf of the
people of Rome. Violations of sumptuary laws (laws designed
to limit excessive consumption or use of luxury goods) could
also lead to fi nes.GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURES
Although many aspects of the Roman government’s budget
must have changed over the centuries, the army almost cer-
tainly remained the single biggest expenditure. In addition to
the salaries of the soldiers, who were not paid entirely in coin,
there was the need for equipment, supplies, and retirement
bonuses. Some payments could be made in kind, and requisi-
tions could take care of some military needs, but cash was
always essential. Rome’s grain supply was another major item
on the budget. Some grain was acquired through in-kind
taxes (from Sicily, for example), but it was oft en necessary to
purchase more.
Building projects could also be expensive, as were the
games and shows that republican politicians and later em-
perors regularly put on. Th e maintenance of public buildings,
spaces, and roads also required money. In 144 b.c.e., for ex-
ample, Quintus Marcius Rex spent 45 million denarii to build
and repair aqueducts. It is unclear how much money mag-
istrates could expect to receive as allowances while govern-
ing provinces, but the sums were clearly substantial. Offi cials
could requisition some supplies and labor, but the Romans
oft en hired private companies to accomplish certain publicGold bars with assayers’ stamps, Roman, late fourth century c.e.,
found in Egypt and Romania; at the time, taxes were payable only
in gold, which was considered the most valuable metal and the
one easiest to transport long distances. (© Th e Trustees of the British
Museum)
368 economy: Rome