At about the age of 15, students passed to the third and
fi nal stage of formal education under the rhetor. Rhetoric was
fi rst taught in the second century b.c.e., once again using
Greek materials that were gradually replaced by Latin mate-
rial. Th e rhetor taught the art of public speaking, which was
important in relation to political advancement in a society
that encouraged widespread debate, developed a legal system
that still aff ects us today, and expected participation in civic
aff airs. In its heyday the study of rhetoric was a practical form
of legal training. Romans such as Cicero and Quintilian (ca.
35–ca. 100 c.e.) wrote sophisticated treatises on the subject;
Cicero, in particular, shows by his career (and in his many
extant speeches) the high quality that such a training could
achieve.
Th e study of rhetoric, however, involved a somewhat
mechanistic training, consisting for the most part in a num-
ber of repeated routine exercises. For example, students were
called on to argue for or against some course of action; to
compose eulogies or criticisms of historic fi gures; to debate
the merits of epigrams and other famous sayings. Th e student
was expected to focus on selecting a suitable subject matter,
arranging or organizing the argument appropriately, deliv-
ering it clearly, and adopting an appropriate tone. Th e study
culminated in the practice of comparing imaginary speeches
and presenting them to fellow students (declamatio). Th ere
were two kinds of declamatio: one (suasoria) involved the at-
tempt to justify (or condemn) some course of action, usually
historical; the other (controversia) consisted of an attempt to
argue for or against a specifi c legal case.
By the end of the fi rst century b.c.e. many Romans com-
pleted their education by studying rhetoric and philosophy
abroad, almost invariably somewhere in the Greek world and
particularly at Athens. But what started well and fl ourished
for a while eventually went into decline under later emperors
when, with political freedom being very limited, the practi-
cal signifi cance of rhetorical ability lessened and artifi ce and
mannerism began to overshadow substance. (Hence, today
rhetoric is generally a critical term, suggesting a triumph of
presentation over real argument).
Th e three stages of education outlined correspond
roughly to the Greek model of schooling. However, the Ro-
mans did not share the Greek passion for either music or
physical education. Generally speaking, the litterator and
grammaticus were held in low repute and were poorly paid.
Th e rhetor commanded more respect and is thought to have
earned something like fi ve times the salary of the litterator; a
few acquired considerable fame. Holidays seem to have been
quite common, taking place on festival days, market days,
and any day when there was a gladiatorial show or a military
triumph as well as during a lengthy summer vacation. Th e
school day began early (oft en before daylight in winter); disci-
pline was strict and included corporal punishment.
Th e key features of Roman education were schooling in
the basic skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic; character
development; and training in the art of public speaking or
advocacy. In the process there was a great deal of drill, rote
learning, and skill practice; the focus was on seriousness of
purpose and material was chosen for its moral value rather
than its intellectual interest or artistic quality, still less its en-
tertainment value. It is perhaps sometimes diffi cult to see how
it did so, but this system of education could produce great hu-
manists and cultured individuals such as Cicero, Virgil, and
Quintilian.THE AMERICAS
BY ANGELA HERREN
For the ancient Americas archaeological evidence provides
no indication of formalized education in schools. One can as-
sume that parents or community members trained their chil-
dren at a young age to perform the activities of daily life. Later
cultures divided major tasks between the genders. Men oft en
hunted, fi shed, grew crops, constructed buildings, sculpted,
painted, made ceramics, and at times engaged in warfare.
Women typically maintained the home, raised children, pre-
pared food, and wove textiles. During the fi rst millennium
b.c.e. early cultures grew more complex and began to build
elaborate ceremonial sites. With the stratifi cation of society,
knowledge must have become more specialized as hierarchi-
cal class distinctions between elite groups, commoners, and
ritual practitioners took root. Early sculptural works and
monumental constructions indicate an interest in astronomi-
cal phenomena, the cosmos, deities, genealogy, and rulership.
In addition to these public monuments, ritual performances
and royal ceremonies educated the populace on the history,
religion, and developing power structures that provided the
foundation for communal society.Fragments of painted plaster, Roman Britain, fi rst or second century
c.e., from Otford, Kent, England; these fragments from a frieze that
decorated a corridor at a Roman villa are inscribed with a line from
Virgil’s Aeniad, showing widespread knowledge of classical Roman
literature. (© Th e Trustees of the British Museum)
education: The Americas 385